World market of goods and services is a system of economic relations in the field of exchange, which is formed between subjects (states, enterprises engaged in foreign economic activity, financial institutions, regional blocs, etc.) regarding the sale and purchase of goods and services, i.e. objects of the world market.

As an integral system, the world market took shape by the end of the 19th century, simultaneously with the completion of the formation of the world economy.

The global market for goods and services has its own characteristics. The main thing is that transactions for the purchase and sale of goods and services are made by residents of various states; goods and services, moving from producer to consumer, cross the borders of sovereign states. The latter, implementing their foreign economic (foreign trade) policy, with the help of various tools (customs duties, quantitative restrictions, requirements for the compliance of goods with certain standards, etc.) have a significant impact on commodity flows both in terms of geographical orientation and industry accessories, intensity.

The regulation of the movement of goods on the world market is carried out not only at the level of individual states, but also at the level of interstate institutions - the World Trade Organization (WTO), the European Union, the North American Free Trade Agreement, etc.

All member countries of the World Trade Organization (as of August 24, 2012, there were 157 of them, Russia became the 156th) undertake the obligation to implement 29 major agreements and legal instruments, united by the term "multilateral trade agreements", covering over 90% of all world trade in goods and services.

Fundamental principles and rules of the WTO are:

· provision of the most favored nation treatment in trade on a non-discriminatory basis;

· mutual provision of national treatment for goods and services of foreign origin;

regulation of trade mainly by tariff methods;

Refusal to use quantitative restrictions;

• transparency of trade policy;

· resolution of trade disputes through consultations and negotiations.

International trade affects the state of the national economy by performing the following tasks :

1. Filling in the missing elements of national production, which makes the "consumer basket" of economic agents of the national economy more diverse;

2. Transformation of the natural-material structure of GDP due to the ability of external factors of production to modify and diversify this structure;

3. Effect-forming function, i.e. the ability of external factors to influence the growth of the efficiency of national production, the maximization of national income while reducing the socially necessary costs of its production.

Foreign trade operations purchase and sale of goods are the most common and traditional for international trade.

Purchase and sale transactions goods are divided into the following:

export;

import;

· re-export;

re-import;

countertrade.

Export operations involve the sale and export of goods abroad for their transfer to the ownership of a foreign counterparty.

Import operations- purchase and import of foreign goods for their subsequent sale in the domestic market of their country or consumption by the importing enterprise.

Re-export and re-import operations are a kind of export-import operations.

Re-export operation- this is the export abroad of previously imported goods that have not undergone any processing in the re-exporting country. Such transactions are most often encountered when selling goods at auctions and commodity exchanges. They are also used in the implementation of large projects with the participation of foreign firms, when the purchase of certain types of materials and equipment is carried out in third countries. In this case, as a rule, goods are sent to the country of sale without importing products to the country of re-export. Quite often, re-export operations are used to make a profit due to the difference in prices for the same product in different markets. In this case, the goods are also not imported into the re-exporting country.

A significant number of re-export operations are carried out on the territory of free economic zones. Goods imported into free economic zones are not subject to customs duties and are exempt from any duties, fees and taxes on import, circulation or production when exported for re-export. Customs duty is paid only when goods are moved across the customs border into the country.

Re-import operations involve the import from abroad of previously exported domestic goods that have not been processed there. These can be goods not sold at auction, returned from a consignment warehouse, rejected by the buyer, etc.

In recent decades, qualitatively new processes in the organization and technique of international trade operations continue to be actively developed. One such process was the widespread countertrade.

At the core counter trade is the conclusion of counter transactions that link export and import operations. An indispensable condition for counter transactions is the obligation of the exporter to accept as payment for its products (for its full value or part of it) certain goods of the buyer or arrange for their purchase by a third party.

There are the following forms of countertrade: barter, counter-purchase, direct compensation.

Barter- This is a natural, without the use of financial calculations, the exchange of a certain product for another.

Terms counter purchases the seller delivers the goods to the buyer on normal commercial terms and at the same time undertakes to purchase counter goods from him in the amount of a certain percentage of the amount of the main contract. Therefore, a counter purchase provides for the conclusion of two legally independent, but actually interconnected purchase and sale transactions. In this case, the primary contract includes a clause on the obligations of the purchase and liability in case of non-fulfillment of the purchase.

Direct Compensation involves the mutual supply of goods on the basis of one contract of sale or on the basis of a contract of sale and the agreements attached to it on counter or advance purchases. These transactions have an agreed mechanism of financial settlements in the presence of commodity and financial flows in each direction. Like barter transactions, they contain the obligation of the exporter to purchase goods from the importer. However, in compensation, in contrast to barter, deliveries are paid independently of each other. At the same time, financial settlements between the parties can be carried out both by transferring foreign currency and by settling mutual clearing claims.

In practice, the main incentive for concluding most offset transactions is the desire to avoid the transfer of foreign currency. To do this, a clearing form of settlement is used, in which, after the goods are sent by the exporter, their payment requirements are entered into a clearing account in the importer's country, and then satisfied through a counter delivery.

To analyze the dynamics of international trade in goods, indicators of the cost and physical volume of foreign trade are used. The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the analyzed years using current exchange rates. Actual volume of foreign trade calculated in constant prices and allows you to make the necessary comparisons and determine its real dynamics.

Along with international trade in goods, there is a widely developed and trade in services. International trade in goods and trade in services are closely related. When delivering goods abroad, more and more services are being provided, starting with market analysis and ending with the transportation of goods. Many types of services entering the international circulation are included in the export and import of goods. At the same time, international trade in services has some features compared to traditional trade in goods.

The main difference is that services usually do not have a materialized form, although a number of services acquire it, for example: in the form of magnetic media for computer programs, various documentation printed on paper. However, with the development and spread of the Internet, the need to use a material shell for services is significantly reduced.

Services, unlike goods, are produced and consumed mostly simultaneously and are not subject to storage. In this regard, the presence abroad of direct service providers or foreign consumers in the country of production of services is often required.

The concept of "service" includes a complex of diverse types of human economic activity, causing the existence of various options for classifying services.

International practice defines the following 12 service sectors, which, in turn, include 155 sub-sectors:

1. commercial services;

2. postal and communication services;

3. construction works and structures;

4. trading services;

5. services in the field of education;

6. security services environment;

7. services in the field of financial intermediation;

8. health and social services;

9. services related to tourism;

10. services for organizing recreation, cultural and sports events;

11. transport services;

12. other services not included anywhere.

In the system of national accounts, services are divided into consumer (tourism, hotel services), social (education, medicine), production (engineering, consulting, financial and credit services), distribution (trade, transport, freight).

The WTO focuses on the relationship between the producer and the consumer of services, highlighting four types of transactions in international trade in services :

A. From the territory of one country to the territory of another country (cross-border supply of a service). For example, sending information data to another country via telecommunications networks.

B. Consumption of a service in the territory of another country (consumption abroad) implies the need to move the buyer (consumer) of the service to another country in order to receive (consume) the service there, for example, when a tourist goes to another country for recreation.

C. Supply through commercial presence in the territory of another country (commercial presence) means the need for the movement of factors of production to another country in order to provide services in the territory of that country. This means that a foreign service provider must invest in the country's economy, create a legal entity there in order to provide services. We are talking, for example, about the creation or participation in the creation of banks, financial or insurance companies in the territory of another country.

D. Delivery through the temporary presence of natural persons in the territory of another country means that individual moves to another country in order to provide services in its territory. An example would be the services provided by a lawyer or consultant.

In conditions of a high degree of saturation of the world market with goods and tougher competition on it, services provided to the business sector, for example, engineering, consulting, franchising, etc., become important. Tourism, healthcare, education, culture and art have great export potential.

Let us briefly describe some of the types of services.

Engineering is an engineering and consulting service for the creation of enterprises and facilities.

The whole set of engineering services can be divided into two groups: firstly, services related to the preparation of the production process and, secondly, services to ensure the normal course of the production process and product sales. The first group includes pre-project services (mineral exploration, market research, etc.), project services (drafting a master plan, project cost estimation, etc.) and post-project services (supervision and inspection of work, training of personnel, etc. .). The second group includes services for the management and organization of the production process, inspection and testing of equipment, operation of the facility, etc.

Consulting is the process of providing the client with the special knowledge, skills and experience necessary for the implementation of professional activities.

Consulting services can be considered from the point of view of the subject of consulting and classified depending on the sections of management: general management, financial management, etc. Based on the method of consulting, for example, expert and training consulting are distinguished.

The services of consultants are intended for use by the management of companies, i.e. decision makers and those related to the activities of the organization as a whole. By attracting a consultant, the client expects to receive from him assistance in the development or reorganization of the business, expert opinions on some decisions or situations, and finally, just to learn or adopt certain professional skills from him. In other words, consultants are invited to remove the uncertainty that arises at different stages of the process of preparation, adoption and implementation of responsible decisions.

Franchising– a system for the transfer or sale of technology and trademark licenses. This type of service is characterized by the fact that the franchisor transfers not only exclusive rights based on a license agreement to engage in entrepreneurial activities, but also includes assistance in training, marketing, management in exchange for financial compensation from the franchisee. Franchising as a business assumes that, on the one hand, there is a firm known in the market and having a high image, and on the other, a citizen, a small entrepreneur, a small firm.

Rent- a form of management in which, on the basis of an agreement between the lessor and the lessee, various objects necessary for independent management are transferred to the latter for temporary paid possession and use.

The subjects of lease may be land and other movable property, machinery, equipment, various durable goods.

Widespread in international commercial practice has become a long-term lease, called leasing.

For a leasing operation, the following scheme is most typical. The lessor concludes a lease contract with the lessee and signs a sales contract with the equipment manufacturer. The manufacturer transfers the leased item to the tenant. The leasing company, at its own expense or through a loan received from a bank, pays off the manufacturer and repays the loan from rental payments.

There are two forms of leasing: operational and financial. Operational leasing provides for the lease of equipment for a period that is shorter than the amortization period. In this case, the machinery and equipment are subject to a series of successive short-term lease agreements, and the full depreciation of the equipment occurs as a result of its successive use by several lessees.

Financial leasing provides for the payment during the period of its validity of amounts covering the full cost of the equipment, as well as the profit of the lessor. In this case, the leased equipment cannot be repeatedly subject to lease agreements, since the lease term is usually set on the basis of its normal effective life. Such a rental operation is in many ways reminiscent of a regular foreign trade sale and purchase transaction, but on specific conditions similar to the forms of commodity lending.

Tourist services are a widespread type of activity in modern conditions. International tourism covers the category of persons traveling abroad and not engaged in paid activities there.

Tourism can be classified according to various criteria:

ü goal: route-cognitive, sports and health-improving, resort, amateur, festival, hunting, shop-tourism, religious, etc.;

ü form of participation: individual, group, family;

ü Geography: intercontinental, international, regional, according to seasonality - active tourist season, off-season, off-season.

A separate group of transactions for the purchase and sale of services represents operations for servicing the turnover. These include operations:

ü international transportation of goods;

ü Freight forwarding;

ü Cargo insurance;

ü cargo storage;

ü according to international settlements, etc.

1. International trade in goods and services.

International trade as the main form of international economic relations. The basis of economic relations in the MX is international trade. It accounts for about 80% of the total volume of MEO. The material basis for the development of trade is the increasingly deepening international division of labor, which objectively determines the connection between individual territories and countries specializing in the production of a particular product. The interaction of producers of various countries in the process of buying and selling goods and services forms the relations of the world market.

International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, a specific form of exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers. different countries. If a international trade represents the trade of one country with other countries, consisting of import (import) and export (export) of goods and services, then international trade is the aggregate of foreign trade of the countries of the world.

International trade affects the state of the national economy by performing the following functions:

1) replenishment of the missing elements of national production, which makes the "consumer basket" of economic agents of the national economy more diverse;

2) transformation of the natural-material structure of GDP due to the ability of external factors of production to modify and diversify this structure;

3) effect-forming function, i.e. the ability of external factors to influence the growth of the efficiency of national production, the maximization of national income while reducing the socially necessary costs of its production.

International trade arose in antiquity, it was conducted in the slave and feudal society. At that time, a small part of the manufactured products entered the international exchange, mainly luxury goods, spices, and some types of raw materials. Since the second half of the 20th century, international trade has intensified significantly. Analyzing the processes taking place in modern international trade, one can single out its main trend - liberalization: there is a significant decrease in the level of customs duties, many restrictions and quotas are cancelled. At the same time, the policy of protectionism aimed at protecting the national producer is being strengthened. According to forecasts, high rates of international trade will continue into the first half of the 21st century.

In international trade, two main methods (methods) of trade are used: direct method - transaction directly between the producer and the consumer; indirect method - transaction through an intermediary. The direct method brings certain financial benefits: it reduces costs by the amount of the commission to the intermediary; reduces the risk and dependence of the results of commercial activities on the possible dishonesty or insufficient competence of the intermediary organization; allows you to constantly be in the market, take into account changes and respond to them. But the direct method requires considerable commercial skill and trading experience.

International trade in goods takes place in a wide variety of forms. Forms of international trade are types of foreign trade operations. These include: wholesale trade; counter trade; commodity exchanges; futures exchanges; international trades; international auctions; trade fairs.

Currently, almost all subjects of the world economy are involved in international trade. The share of developed countries accounts for 65% of export-import transactions, the share of developing countries - 28%, the share of countries with economies in transition - less than 10%. The undoubted leaders in world trade are the USA, Japan and the EU countries. In recent years, there has been a steady downward trend in the share of developed countries in world trade (back in the 1980s they accounted for 84% of world exports and imports) due to the rapid development of a number of developing countries.

Question 2. International trade in goods. International trade is also characterized by such categories as "export" and "import". Export (export) of goods means the sale of goods on the foreign market. Import (import) of goods is the purchase of foreign goods. Main forms of export (import):

– export (import) of finished products with pre-sale refinement in the country of the buyer;

– export (import) of finished products;

– export (import) of disassembled products;

– export (import) of spare parts;

– export (import) of raw materials and semi-finished products;

– export (import) of services;

– temporary export (import) of goods (exhibitions, auctions).

International trade is characterized by three important characteristics: total volume (foreign trade turnover); commodity structure; geographical structure.

Foreign trade turnover - the sum of the value of exports and imports of a country. The goods are included in the international exchange when crossing the border. The sum of exports and imports forms the turnover, and the difference between exports and imports is the trade balance. The trade balance can be positive (active) or negative (deficit, passive). A trade surplus is the excess of a country's merchandise exports over its merchandise imports. Passive trade balance - foreign trade balance, which is characterized by an excess of imports of goods (imports) over exports (exports). The composition of world trade includes all commodity flows circulating between countries, regardless of whether they are sold on market or other terms, or remain the property of the supplier. In the international practice of statistical accounting of exports and imports, the date of registration is the moment when goods pass through the customs border of the country. The cost of exports and imports is calculated in most countries at contract prices reduced to a single basis, namely: export - at FOB prices, import - at CIF prices.

Considering the commodity structure of international trade in the first half of the 20th century (until World War II) and in subsequent years, significant changes can be noted. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for 1/4 of the trade. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. More than 1/3 of all world trade is trade in machinery and equipment. A rapidly developing area of international trade is the trade in chemical products. It should be noted that there is a trend towards an increase in the consumption of raw materials and energy resources. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. In the global food market, such trends can be explained by the decline in the share of the agricultural sector itself compared to industry. Also, this slowdown is explained by the desire for self-sufficiency in food in developed and a number of developing countries (especially in China and India). Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services, which, in turn, stimulates cross-country exchange of services, especially scientific, technical, industrial, communicative financial and credit nature. At the same time, trade in services (especially such as information and computing, consulting, leasing, engineering) stimulates world trade in industrial goods. Trade in science-intensive goods and high-tech products is developing most dynamically, which stimulates the cross-country exchange of services, especially of a scientific, technical, industrial, communication, financial and credit nature. In addition to traditional types of services (transport, financial and credit, tourism, etc.), new types of services, developing under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, occupy an increasing place in international exchange. The commodity structure of international trade is presented in table 2.

Thus, the world market for goods on present stage is significantly diversified, and the product range of foreign trade turnover is extremely wide, which is associated with the deepening of MRT and a huge variety of needs for industrial and consumer goods.

There have been significant changes in the geographical structure of international trade under the influence of economic and political factors in the world since the 90s of the twentieth century. The leading role still belongs to the industrialized countries. In the group of developing countries, there is a pronounced unevenness in the degree of participation in international trade in goods.

Table 2.10.1 - Commodity structure of world exports by main groups of goods,%

Main product groups	First half twentieth century	End XXcentury
Food (including drinks and tobacco)

mineral fuel
Manufacturing products, including:
equipment, vehicles
chemical goods
other manufacturing products industry
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals
Textiles (fabrics, clothing)

The share of the countries of the Middle East is decreasing, which is explained by the instability of oil prices and the aggravation of contradictions between the OPEC states. Unstable foreign trade position of many African countries included in the group of the least developed. South Africa provides 1/3 of African exports. The position of the countries of Latin America is also not stable enough, because their raw material export orientation remains (2/3 of their export earnings come from raw materials). The increase in the share of Asian countries in international trade was ensured by high economic growth rates (on average 6% per year) and the reorientation of its exports to finished products (2/3 of the value of exports). Thus, the increase in the total share of developing countries in international trade is provided by new industrial countries (China, Taiwan, Singapore). Gaining weight Malaysia, Indonesia. The main flow of international trade falls on developed countries - 55%; 27% of international trade is between developed countries and developing countries; 13% between developing countries; 5% - between countries with economies in transition and all other countries. The economic power of Japan has significantly changed the geography of international trade, giving it a tripolar character: North America, Western Europe and the Asia-Pacific region.

International trade in services.

At present, along with the goods market, the services market is also rapidly developing in the MX, because The service sector occupies a significant place in national economies ah, especially in developed countries. The service sector developed especially rapidly in the second half of the 20th century, which was facilitated by the following factors:

- the deepening of the international division of labor leads to the formation of new types of activity, and, above all, in the service sector;

- a long economic recovery in most countries, which has led to an increase in growth rates, business activity, the solvency of the population, the demand for services is growing;

- the development of scientific and technical progress, which leads to the emergence of new types of services and the expansion of their scope;

– development of other forms of IER

Specificity of services: services are produced and consumed at the same time, they are not stored; services are intangible and invisible; services are characterized by heterogeneity, variability of quality; not all types of services can be involved in international trade, for example, utilities; there are no intermediaries in trade in services; international trade in services is not subject to customs control; international trade in services, more than trade in goods, is protected by the state from foreign competitors.

International practice defines the following 12 service sectors, which, in turn, include 155 sub-sectors: commercial services; postal and communication services; construction works and structures; trading services; educational services; environmental protection services; services in the field of financial intermediation; health and social services; services related to tourism; services for organizing recreation, cultural and sports events; transport services; other, not included services. In the system of national accounts, services are divided into consumer (tourism, hotel services), social (education, medicine), production (engineering, consulting, financial and credit services), distribution (trade, transport, freight).

The international exchange of services is mainly carried out between developed countries and is characterized by a high degree of concentration. Developed countries are the main exporters of services. They account for about 70% of world trade in services, and there has been a steady trend towards a reduction in their role due to the rapid development of a number of developing countries. The volume of international trade in services exceeds 1.6 trillion. $, growth rates are also dynamic. In terms of growth rates and volume in the world economy, the following types of services are leading: financial, computer, accounting, auditing, advisory, legal. A country's specialization in certain types of services depends on the level of its economic development. AT developed countries dominated by financial, telecommunications, information and business services. For developing countries characterized by specialization in transport and tourism services.

International regulation of trade.

The development of international economic relations is accompanied not only by the national regulation of foreign trade, but also by the emergence in recent decades of various forms of interstate interaction in this area. As a result, the regulatory measures of one country have a direct impact on the economies of other states, which take retaliatory steps to protect their producers and consumers, which makes it necessary to coordinate the regulatory process at the interstate level. International trade policy -a coordinated policy of states in order to conduct trade between them, as well as its development and positive impact on the growth of individual countries and the world community.

The main subject of international trade liberalization remains the international trade organization GATT/WTO. GATT - an international agreement for consultations on international trade issues(This is a code of conduct for international trade). GATT was signed in 1947 by 23 countries and operated until 1995, when the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on its basis. GATT promoted trade liberalization through international negotiations. The functions of the GATT were to develop rules for international trade, to regulate and liberalize trade relations.

Main GATT principles: trade must be non-discriminatory; elimination of discrimination through the introduction of the most favored nation principle in relation to the export, import and transit of goods; liberalization of international trade by reducing customs duties and eliminating other restrictions; trade security; the predictability of the actions of entrepreneurs and the regulation of the actions of governments; reciprocity in granting trade and political concessions, settling disputes through negotiations and consultations; the use of quantitative restrictions is not allowed, all measures of quantitative restriction must be transformed into tariff duties; tariffs must be reduced through amicable negotiations and cannot be subsequently increased; when making decisions, participating countries must conduct mandatory consultations among themselves, ensuring the inadmissibility of unilateral actions.

The WTO monitors the implementation of all previous agreements concluded under the auspices of the GATT. Membership in the WTO means for each member state the automatic acceptance in full of its package of already concluded agreements. In turn, the WTO significantly expands the scope of its competence, turning into the most important international body that regulates the development of international economic relations. Countries wishing to join the WTO must: begin the process of rapprochement with WTO member countries, which takes a significant amount of time; make trade concessions; comply with GATT/WTO principles.

Belarus is not yet a member of the WTO and is in a discriminatory position in the world market. It bears losses from anti-dumping policy; it is subject to restrictions on the supply of high technologies. In addition, Belarus is not yet ready to join the WTO, but constant work is being done in this direction.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) has been convened since 1964 once every 4 years. The most significant UNCTAD decisions are the Generalized System of Preferences (1968), the New International Economic Order (1974) and the Integrated Raw Materials Program (1976). The general system of preferences means the provision of trade preferences to developing countries on a non-reciprocal basis. This means that developed countries should not demand any concessions in return for their goods in the markets of developing countries. Since 1971, developed countries began to provide a general system of preferences to developing countries. The USSR lifted all restrictions on the import of goods from developing countries in 1965. In 1974. at the suggestion of developing countries, fundamental documents were adopted on the establishment new international economic order (NIEO) in relations between the countries of the North and the South. The NMEP talked about the formation of a new MRT, focused on the accelerated industrialization of developing countries; on the formation of a new structure of international trade that meets the objectives of accelerated development and raising the living standards of peoples. Developed countries were asked to make adjustments to the economic structure of their economies, to free up niches for goods from developing countries. In accordance with the NMEI, it is necessary to assist developing countries in the development of food and to promote the expansion of its exports from developing countries.

Other international organizations are also involved in international trade issues. As part of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which includes all developed countries, has a Trade Committee. Its task is to promote the expansion of the world exchange of goods and services on a multilateral basis; consideration of general problems of trade policy, balance of payments, conclusions on the advisability of granting loans to members of the organization. Within the framework of the OECD, measures are being developed for the administrative and technical unification of rules in the field of foreign trade, common standards, recommendations for changing trade policy, and others are being developed. A significant impact on the foreign trade of developing countries and countries with economies in transition, especially insolvent debtors, has International Monetary Fund (IMF). Under pressure from the IMF, there is an accelerated liberalization of the markets of these countries in exchange for loans.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/

International trade in goods and services

1. The role of international trade in the world economy

trade international pricing multiplier

All countries enter into foreign trade relations. Each side ends up consuming more than it could produce alone. This is the essence of international trade.

International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a set of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports - and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover.

Export - the sale of goods, providing for its export abroad.

Import - the purchase of goods, providing for its import from abroad.

The trade balance is the difference between the value of exports and imports ("net exports").

Trade turnover - the sum of the cost volumes of exports and imports.

Why do countries trade with each other? Although most theories are built on a national scale, trade decisions are usually made by individual companies, firms. Only when companies see that opportunities on international market may turn out to be larger than in the domestic sector, they will direct their resources to the foreign sector.

World trade has some important features:

1. Differences in mobility. International trade acts as a substitute for international resource mobility - if human and material resources cannot move freely between countries, then the movement of goods and services effectively fills this gap.

2. Currency. Each country has its own currency, and this must be taken into account when conducting export-import operations.

3. Politics. International trade is subject to strong political interference and control.

Export Incentives:

1. Use of excess capacity.

2. Reducing the unit cost of production.

3. Increasing profitability through an increase in margins (the ability, under certain conditions, to sell your products with greater profit abroad than at home).

4. Distribution of sales risk.

Import incentives:

1. Cheaper supplies of goods or raw materials.

2. Expansion of the range.

3. Reducing the risk of interruption in the supply of goods.

You can also highlight some of the obstacles to foreign trade:

Lack of knowledge about available options,

Lack of information about the mechanics of trading;

Fear of risk;

Trading restrictions.

2. Classical theories of international trade

1. Mercantilist theory

Mercantilism is a direction of economic thought developed by European scientists at the beginning of the 17th century, who emphasized the commodity nature of production (T. Man, V. Petty, and others).

The mercantilists were the first to propose a coherent theory of international trade. They believed that the wealth of countries depends directly on the amount of gold and silver that they have, and believed that the state must necessarily export goods more than it imports; regulate foreign trade to increase exports and decrease imports; prohibit or severely restrict the export of raw materials and allow duty-free imports of raw materials that are not available in the country; prohibit all trade of the colonies with countries other than the mother country.

The limitation of the mercantilists is that they failed to understand that the development of countries is possible not only through the redistribution of existing wealth, but also through its growth.

2. The theory of absolute advantages

The main economist who challenged mercantilism was A. Smith (late 18th century). Smith clearly articulated that

the state of a nation depends not so much on the amount of gold they accumulate, but on their ability to produce final goods and services. Therefore, the main task is not to acquire gold, but to develop production through the division of labor and cooperation.

The theory of absolute advantage states that international trade is profitable if two countries trade goods that each country produces at a lower cost than the partner country. Countries export those goods that they produce at lower cost (in the production of which they have an absolute advantage), and import those goods that other countries produce at lower cost (in the production of which their trading partners have an advantage).

Consider the following example. Let us assume that manufacturers in Germany and Mexico produce only two goods - equipment and raw materials. Labor costs for the production of a unit of goods (in working days) are presented in table 5.

Table 1 Initial data for the analysis of the theory of absolute advantages

	Labor costs (working day)
	Germany
Equipment

Germany has an absolute advantage in the production of equipment, since 1 worker. day< 4 раб. дней. Мексиканские производители имеют абсолютное преимущество в производстве сырья, т. к. 2 раб. дня < 3 раб. дней.

Axiom: if country A needs fewer hours to produce product X than country B, then country A has an absolute advantage over country B in the production of this product and it is profitable for it to export this product to country B. It followed from A. Smith's theory that the factors of production have absolute mobility within the country and move to those regions where they receive the greatest absolute advantage.

3. Theory of comparative advantage

D. Ricardo in 1817 proved that international specialization is beneficial for the nation. This was the well-known theory of comparative advantage, or, as it is sometimes called,

theory of comparative production costs. Let's take a closer look at this theory.

Let's say that the world economy consists of two countries - the USA and Brazil. And each of them can produce both wheat (P) and coffee (C), but with different degrees of economic efficiency.

Let us single out the characteristic features of these production possibilities curves.

1. Countries' costs of producing P and C are constant.

The production possibility lines of the two countries do not coincide - this is due to differences in the structure of resources and levels of technology. That is, the costs of P and K of the two countries are different. On fig. 1a shows that the ratio of costs for P and K for the US is 1P for 1K - or 1P=1K. From fig. 1b it follows that for Brazil this ratio is equal to 1P for 2K - or 1P=2K.

2. If the economies of both countries are closed and independently satisfy their needs for these goods, then the self-sufficiency condition for the USA is 18P and 12K (point A), and for Brazil - 8P and 4K (point B).

We have identified differences in cost ratios. Now the question arises: is there a rule by which to determine which products the US and Brazil should specialize in? There is such a rule - this is the principle of comparative advantage: the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity costs are lower. Comparing the domestic costs of these countries for the production of P and C, it can be determined that the United States has a comparative (cost) advantage in the production of P and should specialize in it. Brazil, on the other hand, has a comparative advantage in the production of K and should therefore specialize in it.

Rational economic management - the use of a certain amount of scarce resources to obtain the greatest aggregate output - requires that any product be produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity costs, or, in other words, that has a comparative advantage. In our example, the United States should produce P for the world economy, while Brazil should produce K.

An analysis of this table shows that the specialization of production in accordance with the principle of comparative advantage actually allows the whole world to get more output for a given amount of resources. By specializing entirely in wheat, the US can grow 30 P and not grow C. Similarly, by specializing entirely in coffee, Brazil can produce 20 C and not grow P.

Table 2 International specialization according to the principle of comparative advantage and gains from trade (provisional data)

However, consumers in both countries will want both wheat and coffee. Specialization generates the need to trade or exchange these two goods. What will be the terms of trade?

Logical reasoning will lead us to the following conclusion: the coefficient of international exchange, or the terms of trade, will be within this inequality:

1 TO< 1П < 2К.

The actual exchange rate depends on the global demand for and supply of the two commodities.

Having accepted the international exchange coefficient, or terms of trade, 1P = 1.5K, we will introduce into the analysis, in addition to the line of production possibilities, the line of trade possibilities - fig. 2.

The trade opportunity line shows the choices a country has when specializing in one product and exchanging (exporting) it for another product. Specialization based on the use of the principle of comparative advantage contributes to a more efficient allocation of world resources and an increase in the production of both P and C, and therefore is beneficial to both the United States and Brazil. As a result of specialization and trade, both countries have large quantity each type of product (see Table 6). The entire world economy also benefits in this case: it will receive 30 P (compared to 18 + 8 = 26 P) and 20 K (compared to 12 + 4 = 16 K), which is more than in conditions of self-sufficiency or non-specialized production countries.

The fact that points A1 and B1 in Fig. 2 reflect a more perfect situation compared to points A and B is very important.

Recall that any country can go beyond the limits of its production possibilities only by either increasing the quantity and improving the quality of its resources, or by using the results of technological progress. Now a third way has been found - international trade - by which the country is able to overcome the narrow scale of production limited by the production possibilities curve.

However, it should be noted that a country cannot endlessly develop specialization in any commodity or product. Increasing the scale of production, the country is bound to face rising costs. The most important effect of rising costs is that they put limits on specialization.

4. Theory of the ratio of factors of production

The theory of international trade was also explained through the theory of factors of production. Its authors are E. Heckscher and B. Olin, Swedish economists (mid-1920s). The essence of the theory lies in the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem: each country exports those goods for the production of which it has relatively excess production factors, and imports those goods for the production of which it experiences a relative lack of production factors.

In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the difference in the relative prices of goods in different countries, and hence the trade between them, is explained by the different relative endowments of countries with factors of production.

5. Testing the theory of the ratio of factors of production: Leontief's paradox

After World War II, V. Leontiev tried to empirically prove or disprove the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. Using the input-output inter-industry balance model built on the basis of data on the US economy for 1947, V. Leontiev showed that relatively more labor-intensive goods prevailed in American exports, while capital-intensive goods dominated in imports. Considering that in the early post-war years in the United States, unlike most of its trading partners, capital was a relatively abundant factor of production, and wage levels were much higher, this empirically obtained result clearly contradicted what the Heckscher-Ohlin theory suggested. This phenomenon is called the Leontief paradox. Subsequent studies confirmed the presence of this paradox in the post-war period not only for the United States, but also for other countries (Japan, India, etc.).

Leontief's paradox - the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the ratio of factors of production is not confirmed in practice: labor-saturated countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-saturated countries export labor-intensive ones.

The answer to the “Leontief paradox” lies in:

in the heterogeneity of factors of production, primarily the labor force, which can vary significantly in terms of skill level. Therefore, the exports of industrialized countries may reflect a relative excess of highly skilled labor and specialists, while developing countries export products that require significant inputs of unskilled labor;

significant role of natural resources - raw materials, the extraction of which requires large capital expenditures (for example, in the extractive industries). Therefore, exports from many resource-rich developing countries are capital-intensive, although capital in these countries is not a relatively abundant factor of production;

Americans' traditional preference for buying foreign-made, capital-intensive technology products despite the fact that the country itself is well-endowed with capital;

reversal of factors of production, when the same product can be labor-intensive in a labor-abundant country and capital-intensive in a capital-abundant country. For example, rice produced in the United States with advanced technology is a capital-intensive commodity, while the same rice produced in labor-abundant Vietnam is a labor-intensive commodity because it is produced almost exclusively by manual labor;

influence on the international specialization of the state's foreign trade policy, which can limit imports and stimulate domestic production and exports of products from those industries that intensively use relatively scarce production factors.

3. Alternative theories international trade

The consequences of participation in foreign trade for the national economy have been specified by economists based on the use of the concept of tradable and non-tradable goods and services.

In accordance with this concept, all goods and services are divided into tradable, that is, participating in international exchange (exported and imported), and non-tradable, that is, consumed only where they are produced, and are not objects of international trade. The level of prices for non-tradable goods is formed in the domestic market and does not depend on prices in the world market. In practice, most goods and services produced in agriculture, mining and manufacturing industries are tradable. On the contrary, most of the goods and services produced in the field of construction, transport and communications, utilities, public and personal services are classified as non-tradable.

The division of goods and services into tradable and non-tradable is conditional. This division of goods and services affects the structural shifts in the economy that take place in the country under the influence of the country's participation in world trade. This is due to the fact that the demand for non-tradable goods and services can only be satisfied through domestic production, while the demand for tradable goods and services can also be met through imports.

1. Rybchinsky's theorem

The English economist T. Rybchinsky clarified the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the ratio of factors of production. He proved a theorem according to which, at constant world prices and the presence of only two sectors in the economy, an increase in the use of an excess factor in one of them leads to a reduction in production and output of goods in the other. Consider Rybchinsky's theorem using a specific example (Fig. 3).

Suppose a country produces two goods: X and Y using two factors of production - capital and labor. At the same time, product X is relatively more labor-intensive, and product Y is relatively more capital-intensive. The OF vector shows the optimal combination of labor and capital based on the use of the most efficient technology in the production of goods X, and the OE vector, respectively, in the production of goods Y. The provision of the country as a whole with labor resources and capital is shown by point G, which means that the country has OJ of labor and JG Capital. In the absence of foreign trade, good X is produced in volume F, and good Y in volume E.

If a country is included in the international exchange of goods, then the production of goods Y in the export sector increases and the excess factor - capital - is used to a greater extent. This results in an increase in capital employed by GG1. With the dimensions of the other factor used - labor - being unchanged, the ratio of the production of goods X and Y is shown by the parameters of the new parallelogram.

The production of exported capital-intensive goods Y will move to point E1, that is, it will increase by EE1. On the contrary, the production of more labor-intensive goods X will move to point F1, that is, it will decrease by FF1. Moreover, the movement of capital to the export-oriented sector leads to a disproportionately large increase in the production of good Y.

2. "Dutch disease"

The concept of tradable and non-tradable goods and the Rybchinsky theorem make it possible to explain the problems that many countries faced in the last decades of the 20th century when they began intensive development of new raw export resources: oil, gas, etc., the so-called Dutch disease. This phenomenon owes its name to the fact that in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the development of natural gas in the North Sea began in Holland with the expansion of its export in the future. Economic resources began to move into gas production.

As a result, the income of the population increased, and this led to an increase in the demand for non-tradable goods and an increase in their production. At the same time, there was a curtailment of production in traditional export manufacturing industries and an increase in imports of missing goods.

The subsequent decline in commodity prices triggered a new phase of Dutch disease. There was a decrease in incomes of the population, a reduction in the production of non-tradable goods, an outflow of resources from the sectors of raw material exports. The positions of traditional export industries of the manufacturing industry have been strengthened again. Structural shifts caused by the "Dutch disease" give rise to serious social problems. "Dutch disease" different years struck Norway, Great Britain, Mexico and other countries. The experience of these countries should also be taken into account in Russia.

3. Michael Porter's Theory of Country Competitive Advantage

The theory of comparative advantage was further developed in the works of the American economist M. Porter. Based on the analysis of extensive statistical material, M. Porter created an original theory of the country's competitive advantage. The basis of this theory is the so-called "national rhombus", which reveals the main determinants of the economy that form the competitive macro-environment in which the firms of this country operate.

The "national rhombus" reveals a system of determinants that, interacting, create a favorable or unfavorable environment for realizing the country's potential competitive advantages.

These determinants are:

The parameters of the factors represent the material and non-material conditions necessary for the formation of a competitive advantage for the country as a whole and its leading export-oriented industries.

The strategy of firms, their structure and rivalry play a significant role in ensuring national competitive advantage. If the firm's strategy is not focused on activities in a competitive environment, then in the external market such firms usually do not have a competitive advantage.

The parameters of demand are, first of all, the capacity of demand, the dynamics of its development, the differentiation of types of products, the demand of buyers for the quality of goods and services. It is in the domestic market that new products must be tested before entering the world market.

Related and supporting industries provide firms in export-oriented industries with the necessary materials, semi-finished products, components, information, act necessary condition creating and maintaining a competitive advantage in global trade for firms in relevant industries.

In the overall picture of competitive advantages, M. Porter also assigns a role to chance and government.

4. Development of modern international trade

International trade is one of the leading forms of international economic relations. The volume of international trade has a value estimate. The nominal value of international trade is usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on the dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against other currencies. The real volume of international trade is the nominal volume converted into constant prices using a chosen deflator. In general, the nominal value of world trade has a general upward trend (see Table 8). In value terms, the volume of world trade in 2000 was $12 trillion, almost three times lower than the value of world GDP ($33 trillion).

Structure of international trade

The structure of international trade is usually considered in terms of its geographical distribution (geographical structure) and commodity content (commodity structure).

The geographical structure of international trade is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, identified either on a territorial or organizational basis (Table 7).

Table 3 Geographic structure of international trade (increase in international trade by region in 1995-1999, in %)

The main volume of international trade falls on developed countries, although their share decreased slightly in the first half of the 1990s due to an increase in the share of developing countries and countries with economies in transition (mainly due to the rapidly developing new industrial countries of Southeast Asia - Korea, Singapore , Hong Kong - and some Latin American countries) (Table 8).

Data on the commodity structure of international trade in the world as a whole is very incomplete. We note the most significant trends.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, two "floors" have emerged in the structure of the world commodity market - the market for basic goods (fuel, minerals, agricultural products, timber) and the market for finished products. The first type of goods was produced by developing and former socialist countries specializing in the export of resource- and labor-intensive goods. Of the 132 developing countries, 15 specialize in the export of oil, 43 in the export of mineral and agricultural raw materials. The goods of the second "floor" are the prerogative of the industrialized countries.

In the second half of the twentieth century, in the context of the rapid development of electronics, automation, telecommunications, and biotechnology, the "second floor" was divided into three levels:

1st level - the market of low-tech products (ferrous metallurgy products, textiles, footwear, other light industry products);

2nd level - the market of medium-tech products (machine tools, vehicles, rubber and plastic products, products of basic chemistry and wood processing);

3rd level - the market of high-tech products (aerospace engineering, information technology, electronics, pharmaceuticals, precision measuring instruments, electrical equipment).

Place in rate. (1997)

Export, 1997

Import, 1997

Place in rate. (2001)

Export, 2001

Import, 2001

Germany

Great Britain

Netherlands

South Korea

Singapore

Malaysia

Switzerland

Russia

Australia

Brazil

Indonesia

In the last decade, the 3rd level of the world market for finished products has been expanding rapidly: its share in total world exports has increased from 9.9% in the early 80s to 18.4% in the early 90s.

The "upper tier of the 2nd level" is the sphere of the fiercest competition between industrialized countries. In the market for medium- and low-tech finished products, NIS are fighting. The number of participants in this struggle is constantly increasing at the expense of the developing and former socialist countries.

According to UN experts, at the end of the 20th century, 75% of world exports were manufactured products, while ½ of this indicator falls on technically complex goods and machines. Food products, including drinks and tobacco, account for 8% of world exports. Mineral raw materials and fuel - 12%. AT recent times there is an increase in the share in world exports of textile products and finished products of the manufacturing industry up to 77%. In addition, the share of services, means of communication and information technologies.

5. Pricing in world trade. Foreign trade multiplier

A characteristic feature of world trade is the presence of a special system of prices - world prices. They are based on international production costs, which gravitate to the average world costs of economic resources for the creation of this type of goods. International production costs are formed under the predominant influence of countries that are the main suppliers of these types of goods to the world market. In addition, the ratio of supply and demand for this type of product in the world market has a significant impact on the level of world prices.

International trade is characterized by a plurality of prices, that is, the existence of different prices for the same product. World prices vary depending on the time of year, place, conditions for the sale of goods, features of the contract. In practice, world prices are taken to be the prices of large, systematic and stable export or import transactions concluded in certain centers of world trade by well-known firms - exporters or importers of the relevant types of goods. For many raw materials (cereals, cotton, rubber, etc.), world prices are set in the process of trading on the world's largest commodity exchanges.

The international value is usually less than the national value of the corresponding goods, since the most competitive goods, that is, those produced at the lowest cost, are usually supplied to the world market. Other factors also influence world prices: the ratio of supply and demand, product quality, the state of the monetary sphere. However, long-term trends in the formation of world prices manifest themselves as universal action the law of value in the world market. As an illustration of world pricing, we present Table. 9.

Table 4 Average monthly world prices in June of the corresponding year (according to the data of the International Petroleum Exchange (London) and London Metal Exchange)


Oil (Brent), USD/t
Natural gas, USD/thousand m3
Gasoline, USD/t
Copper, USD/t
Aluminum, USD/t
Nickel, USD/t

To quantify the impact of foreign trade on the growth of the national income and GNP of the country, a foreign trade multiplier model has been developed and is used in practice.

Recall that the multiplication principle characterizes the impact exerted by investment, and ultimately by any expenditure, on the growth of employment and the increment in output (income), that is

MULT == 1/1-s,

where ДY - increase in income, and ДI - increase in investments; c is the marginal propensity to consume.

The foreign trade multiplier model can be calculated using a similar scheme. At the same time, we will assume that imports and exports can have an independent impact on the development of the national economy of a country participating in foreign economic activity. The impact of imports in this case can be equated with the impact of consumption, and the impact of exports - with the investment impact. Accordingly, the marginal propensity to consume in this case takes the form of the marginal propensity to import: c = m = M/Y, and the marginal propensity to save - the form of the marginal propensity to export: s = x = X/Y. An autonomous change in exports will have the following impact on income growth:

This is the foreign trade multiplier.

In real life, exports and imports are interconnected. The country's import is also an export for the counterparty state. Such interdependence significantly complicates the multiplier model, which, in order to reflect real foreign trade relations, must take into account the interaction of at least two countries. Consider the multiplier model on the example of the development of relations between two countries - country 1 and country 2, between which there are foreign trade relations. At the same time, the export of country 1 is completely sent to country 2 and equals its import, and vice versa. If we also assume that the change in investment occurs only in country 1, then the final formula of the foreign trade multiplier will take the form:

This formula substantiates the dependence of the change in the income of country 1, due to the change in investment, on the marginal propensity to consume and to import not only country 1, but also country 2. An increase in investment in the investor country (country 1) causes an increase in income in it as a result of the multiplier effect, at the same time stimulates imports, which act as exports for the counterparty country (country 2). In turn, the export of country 2 stimulates the growth of its income.

Brief conclusions

International trade is one of the most developed and traditional forms of international economic relations. In the field of international trade, there is intense competition, since the economic interests of almost all the main subjects of the world economy collide here. International trade consists of two opposite flows - exports and imports. The nominal volume of international trade as a whole has a general upward trend. Since prices in international trade are rising, the value of trade is growing faster than its physical volume.

Simultaneously with the growth of the scale of international trade, its structure is also changing - geographical shifts (changes in the ratios between countries and groups of countries) and shifts in the commodity structure.

Classical theories of international trade laid the foundations for the analysis of world economic relations. The conclusions contained in these theories have become a kind of starting axioms for the further development of economic thought.

The process of development of world trade is subject to the action of the multiplier effect.

Hosted on Allbest.ru

26.1. The place and role of international trade in goods and services in the modern system of world economic relations
26.2. The main trends and features of the development of international trade
26.3. Foreign trade policy in the era of globalization
26.4. Russia in international trade
Basic terms and definitions
Questions for self-control
Literature

According to internationally accepted definitions, in particular in the UN, WTO, OECD, international trade is a cross-border exchange of goods and services, the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world. International statistics are built on this terminological base.
The basis of international trade is the international division of labor, which is manifested in the specialization of individual countries, national sectors of the economy and enterprises in the production of goods and services for the foreign market. There are a number of indicators characterizing the country's participation in the international division of labor, the most important of which is the "export quota", i.e. the ratio of the value of a country's exports to the value of that country's GDP.
The mechanism of the emergence of material benefits of the international division of labor was first revealed in the last quarter of the 18th - early 19th centuries. classics of political economy A. Smith and D. Ricardo and was called the theory of comparative production costs. Subsequent researchers added such factors of production as land, capital, technology, information, entrepreneurial abilities, etc. to labor costs.
According to the later neoclassical concept of the Swedish scientists E. Heckscher and B. Ohlin, the export of goods (as a result of an excess of certain factors in the country) can be replaced by a cross-border movement of production factors (except land), and the reward received by the owner of the factor for its use is factor cost. Supporters of this theory had a negative attitude towards restrictions that impede the intercountry movement of both goods and factors of production, and advocated freedom of foreign trade.
The classical theory of international trade was later developed and supplemented. Thus, the theory of the technological gap (S. Linder and others) suggests that the development of trade between countries with the same endowment with factors of production is caused primarily by technical and technological innovations that make it possible to produce goods at lower costs.
According to the theory life cycle product (R. Vernoy and others), countries can specialize in the production of goods, but at different stages of their "maturity". This theory was later supplemented by the concept of "innovation", the introduction of which into production not only increased the competitiveness of the product, but also led to savings in the use of resources.
The theory of international competitiveness of nations, or competitive advantages, by M. Porter, which appeared at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, formed the basis of modern foreign trade policy in almost all countries. She combined elements of neoclassical theory and the theory of foreign trade activities of the enterprise. The competitiveness of the country, according to Porter, creates the competitive advantages of the enterprise, the success of which in the world market depends on the right strategy.
It should be noted that all these theories, starting with the theory of A. Smith, served the interests of economically developed countries, assuming the maximum development of free trade and its liberalization.
Modern neoliberalism, with the fundamental principle of "equal opportunities" and reliance on the freedom of market forces with minimal state participation, has until recently been the basis of the theory of globalization and international trade. At the same time, the leading countries, especially the United States, while declaring the sanctity and universality of this principle, violated it more than once by resorting to protectionism if the interests of certain sectors of the national economy were directly or indirectly affected. The development of the competitiveness of priority industries and the promotion of their products on the world market in these countries has always taken place with the most active support of the state, using the entire arsenal of economic and trade policy tools for this.
The events of recent years, especially in connection with the global financial crisis of 1997-1999, forced many countries, primarily developing ones, to seriously reconsider their positions. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the concept of "equal opportunities" applied to industrialized countries is not suitable for creating equal opportunities for developing countries to participate in international trade. "Fair conditions" are needed. At the WTO conference in Cancun (2003), developing countries for the first time acted in a consolidated way within the framework of the G-22 group, i.e. the largest and most successful developing countries, as a counterweight to the policies of the leading developed powers.
Today, the theory and practice of international trade liberalization, including within the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO), needs serious adjustment, a differentiated approach with greater attention to the interests of developing countries and countries with economies in transition.

26.1. The place and role of international trade in goods and services in the modern system of world economic relations

International trade in goods and services is one of the most important and most dynamic factors in the globalization of the world economy and the participation of national economies in it. Moreover, today no country can count on success without an active participation in international trade.
It is profitable for countries to export. So, in 1950-1990. GDP production in the world increased 5 times (in constant prices), and commodity exports - 11 times. With the expansion of the manufacturing industry during this period by 8 times, its exports increased by 20 times. Over the last decade of the past century, with the growth of GDP in the CL, world exports of goods more than doubled. As a result, the foreign trade quota, i.e. dependence of the economy of all countries on foreign trade, calculated as the ratio of the value of foreign trade turnover to the value of GDP in the world, for 1990-2000. increased from 32 to 40% (Table 26.1).

The expansion of international trade in goods stimulates the exchange of services, for accelerated growth which is also influenced by socio-economic changes in countries (“post-industrial development”) and scientific and technological progress in the world. In 2003, world exports of services amounted to about $1.8 trillion. (against 155 billion dollars in 1975), or almost 20% of world trade in goods and services. At the same time, the level of protectionist restrictions in international trade in services is everywhere higher than in trade in goods. The main participants in this exchange are practically the same countries as in the trade in goods, i.e. economically developed countries.
The commodity structure of world trade reflects the shifts taking place in the economies of the participating countries and in the process of globalization of economic life. The leading place in world exports is occupied by manufacturing products, whose share in 2000 reached 75% (70% in 1990). Of this, machinery, equipment and means of transport account for more than 41% (36% a decade ago), among which the most dynamic item is office and telecommunications equipment - more than 15% (9%), while trade in automotive products has stabilized at 9% . The next most important commodity item is mining products - 13% (14%), in which the main place is occupied by fuel. Meaning

Maintaining the leadership of developed countries in international trade is ensured primarily through the export of high-tech products. Developed countries account for almost 3/4 of world exports of these products, which in 2000 amounted to more than 1 trillion dollars.
It should be noted the difference in the nature of international trade of the leading countries. The US has a multi-year trade liability, i.e. excess of imports of goods over exports, reaching 0.5 billion dollars. and more. However, the balance of payments of this country is reduced to the asset through proceeds from the export of capital and services. At the same time, Germany and Japan are characterized by a trade surplus.
In the last decade, there has been a strengthening of the positions in international trade of the newly industrialized countries (NICs) from among the developing countries, mainly due to an increase in their exports of processed products, including high technologies. In the last decade alone, in the exports of East and Southeast Asia (ESEA), the share of manufactured goods has increased from 50% to: / 3, while high-tech goods accounted for more than 30% of total exports. This was the result of a targeted policy for the development of an export-oriented economy and broad participation in international industrial cooperation.
That is why in the export of such countries as the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, the share of high-tech products today has already reached 60% of the total export value of processed goods. For Thailand, South Korea, and the SEEA countries, this figure exceeds 30%, while the average for developing countries is 20%.
Many developing countries continue to be heavily dependent on exports of extractive industries (75% of exports from the Middle East) and agriculture (Latin America and Africa).
However, even among developed countries there are examples of high dependence on raw material exports, which is explained by their natural competitive advantages (60% of Norway's exports are oil and gas, 60% of New Zealand's and 73% of Iceland's are agricultural products).
Of the countries in transition, the largest volumes of foreign trade operations fall on the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and Russia, although in general their share in international trade continues to be insignificant (less than 4% in 2003).
The most modest position in the international trade system is occupied by the least developed countries, which include 50 countries of the world, which account for only 0.6% of world exports. The income gap of these countries compared to the countries of the "golden billion" is 1:150, and their continued marginalization is fraught with dangers for the process of globalization.
The largest commodity markets (production plus exchange), which determine the nature of world trade, are the market for machinery and transport equipment (with export deliveries of up to 2.5 trillion dollars), the market for mineral fuels (more than 400 billion dollars), as well as the market for black and non-ferrous metals (about 350 billion dollars).
The specificity of the modern world market of machinery and equipment lies in the fact that today it largely determines the material content of the globalization process, which is called “Global production” in modern literature. This phenomenon is based on stable ties of industrial cooperation on the basis of medium- and long-term contracts within the framework of intra-industry specialization. Here, the advantages of the international division of labor and intercountry movements of factors of production are fully manifested, including the movement of huge financial resources and investments, the use of advanced innovations, information technologies, and original entrepreneurial decisions. It is in this area, which is an important element in the development of the entire world civilization, that the industrialized countries of the “golden billion” hold their positions thanks to cross-industry ties, the profitability of which is a constant concern of transnational corporations and transnational banks.
These processes were reflected, in particular, in the rapid growth of trade in office and telecommunications equipment (in 1990-2000, an annual average of 12%), which accounted for almost 40% of foreign deliveries of engineering products (in 1990, 25%). The United States and Japan are the largest suppliers of this equipment, although at the same time the United States is an even larger importer of these products.
Germany (16% of the value of world exports in 2000), Japan (15%) are the main suppliers of cars on the world market. USA (12%), Canada (11%), France (7%), and among the developing countries - Mexico (more than 5%) and South Korea (about 3%). The main importer (almost 30%) is the USA. In 2000, about 58 million cars were produced in the world, more than 40% of which were exported. In addition to finished cars, a significant part of the industry's products are exported and imported in the form of components and components for subsequent assembly. The aerospace industry has an incomparably large range of cooperative deliveries.
The other largest commodity market in the world is the market for mineral fuels, whose resources are concentrated mainly in the Middle East (more than 65% of the world's proven oil reserves). The countries of the region provide over 50% of the supply of crude oil to the world market, regulating oil production and export with the help of the OPEC organization. Oil and oil products account for 80% (by value) of world energy exports; at the same time, the position of natural gas has strengthened over the past two decades, mainly due to its greater environmental friendliness. The largest exporter of natural gas is Russia - 130 billion m3 in 2000. The main world importers of oil and oil products are the USA (26%), Western Europe (24%), Southeast Asian countries (19%), Japan (more than 12%). The USA, Germany and Japan are the main buyers of natural gas - 20%, 15% and 14% respectively.
The constant expansion of international trade in manufactured products is explained not only by the needs of scientific and technological progress, but also by the high efficiency of this trade in terms of both rapid commercialization and a positive impact on the economies of exporting countries.
Fuel and raw material exports, as world experience shows, are subject to sharp changes in demand and prices, are difficult to predict and depend on market fluctuations. An example of the instability of fuel and raw materials trade can be seen in the dynamics of world oil prices, which experienced a sharp drop three times in the 1980s and 1990s alone: in 1986 to the 1985 level by more than 50%; 1988-1987 - 22% and 1998-1997 - 34%.
The global downward trend in commodity prices is well illustrated by the movement of the terms of trade index, which shows the ratio of average export prices to average import prices, i.e. the purchasing power of 100 exports expressed in terms of imports. If this indicator for a country or a group of countries is more than 100, then the ratio of prices in their trade compared to the base period is favorable; if less, then, on the contrary, unfavorable. For developed countries, this index throughout the 1990s and even earlier (base - 1990) was constantly positive within the range of 105-106 points, and for developing countries - mainly suppliers of raw materials - fluctuated within 95-100 points.
In international trade in services, as well as in goods, the leading place again belongs to industrialized countries, primarily the EU countries. However, recently the share of these countries in trade in services has decreased slightly due to the expansion of the supply of services by TNC affiliates in developing countries. Western European countries today account for more than 40% of exports and imports of services, North America - more than 20%) and about the same for Asian countries.
The main service providers are the United States and Great Britain (respectively 16 and 7% of world exports in 2003), as well as France and Germany (6% each). The largest importers are the USA (13%), Germany (10%), Japan (6%). In 2003, Russia accounted for about 0.9% of exports and 1.5% of imports of services in the world.
Although the UN classification of services contains over 500 items and sub-items, and according to the WTO classification - more than 160 types of services, in international statistics, three aggregated items are most often distinguished: transport services, tourism and other types of services, mainly the so-called "business".
Data on the structure of world exports of services are given in Table. 26.3.

As follows from the table, over the past 30 years there have been fundamental changes in world trade in services. The share of transport services has declined significantly as a result of the expansion of tourism and especially other (business) services, reflecting more high level life and growth in the value of intangible activities.

Relatively new, rapidly developing types of business services are related to business services - enterprises, banks, insurance companies, trade, and the media. These services include, in particular, professional and managerial (consultations, accounting, audit); information and computer, including software, database; transfer of technology and know-how; personnel services; operating - enterprise management, quality control, elimination of production waste; banking and insurance; laboratory, market and predictive research; advertising, sale, trade mediation; services in the field of telecommunications and rent; repair and maintenance of equipment; design and construction of facilities; services in space exploration for civil purposes.
The globalization of this most important sphere of human activity and business has led to an increase in the involvement of qualified specialists in order to further increase labor productivity, reduce costs, improve quality, use resources more efficiently, and reduce work time. All this allows the company to increase the competitiveness of its products or services. The latter through the transfer of technology, information, cross-border movement of personnel and through commercial presence (creation of bank branches, for example) are increasingly associated with foreign direct investment.
E-commerce via the Internet has been a rapidly growing business services sector in the last decade. The volume of world e-commerce amounted to 5-10 billion dollars in the mid-1990s, and 100-150 billion dollars at the beginning of the century. and about 1.5-2 trillion dollars. in 2003. Every 12-18 months, commercial transactions via the Internet double in the world, and their potential is estimated at 30% of the GDP of developed countries. Exceptionally large opportunities for the growth of e-commerce are the sectors of trade and finance. The advantages of this type of service consist primarily in cost savings and transaction time.
Just as the development of intra-industry specialization and cooperation in the material sphere is boundless, the market for services is also boundless in nature. The importance of international trade in services goes beyond this sector and is a dynamic component of the globalization of the world economy.

26.2. The main trends and features of the development of international trade

An analysis of the current state of international trade in goods and services makes it possible to identify the main trends and features of its development, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
1. Its predominant development will remain in comparison with industries material production and GDP of individual countries and the entire world economy. At the same time, trade in manufacturing products and, first of all, science-intensive, high-tech products will develop most dynamically and steadily. In 2000, the overall index of growth in the physical volume of exports of goods compared with 1990 was 176 points, including 184 points for finished goods, while for goods in the extractive industries it was 149 points, and for agricultural goods - 145 points. During the same time, the overall index of production in the world amounted to only 122 points, including finished goods - 125, agricultural products - 120 and extractive industries - 117 points. General GDP index for the period 1990-2000 reached 122 points. For the period 1995-2003. the average annual growth rate of GDP was 2.5%, and merchandise exports - more than 5%.
A similar picture is observed in world trade in services, which is the most dynamic sector of the world economy. The share of services in world GDP in 2002 reached 64%, and in the GDP of industrialized countries - 70%. A further increase in the share of services in world trade is expected, the formation of a global market for services under the influence of the acceleration of the scientific and technological process and the liberalization of international economic relations.
2. Under the influence of the process of globalization and its main actors - TNCs and TNBs - there will be further changes in the geographical directions of the flow of goods and services. The share of developing countries is expected to increase due to the NIS and the share in the volume of goods and services of Asian countries is expected to increase due to China and the newly industrialized countries (“Asian dragons”).
A slight decrease in the share of developed countries in world trade, the transfer by transnational corporations of the “lower floors” of modern production and part of sub-supplies to developing countries does not mean the loss of the leading position of economically strong countries. This is evidenced by their leading role in the production and exchange of high-tech products and the further development of mutual trade, especially within the framework of intra-industry production specialization and cooperation. At present, 1/4 of world merchandise exports fall on the mutual trade of the three most powerful centers: Western Europe, North America and Southeast Asia, which only confirms the above.
3. A growing influence on the development of world trade is exerted by regional integration associations that connect not only the flow of goods, but also services, capital, and labor into a single economic space. Today, about 2/3 of international trade is carried out on a preferential basis under regional trade agreements, of which, according to the WTO secretariat, there are more than 110. Most of these agreements operate in the form of free trade zones, which means the liberalization of intra-zone trade and the freedom of its participants in "third countries".

The most advanced regional groupings are the European Union consisting of 25 countries, the only integration association that has gone through all stages of integration in half a century of existence; North American Free Trade Area NAFTA (USA, Canada and Mexico), South American Market - MERCOSUR (4 countries) and Association of Southeast Asian Nations - ASEAN (10 countries).
In 2000, intra-regional trade accounted for 61% of all EU exports, or ($ trillion) 1.4 out of 2.3 in total; 56% - NAFTA, or 0.7 out of 1.2, respectively; ASEAN - 24%, or 0.1 and * 0.4, respectively; MERCOSUR -21%.
The removal of barriers in intra-regional trade, the convergence of investment, tax and other legislation give their participants all the advantages of large-scale production, direct access to raw materials and labor resources. As a result of combining the financial and scientific and technical capabilities of the participants, production costs are reduced, and products, including those for export, become more competitive.
It is known that one of the tasks of the EU member states was to create an association capable of competing on an equal footing with the United States and Japan and increasing its participation in international trade.
4. The content of international trade is increasingly becoming "servicing" the needs of "global production" within the framework of TNCs, and this process will continue. Already now, more than half of the world trade in finished products and about a third of all trade is carried out on the basis of long-term agreements and contracts for scientific, technical, production and marketing cooperation. The rapid expansion of supplies of parts, assemblies and components for foreign enterprises participating in industrial cooperation has become a characteristic feature of recent decades.
The use of TNCs by enterprises of developing countries in industrial cooperation is beneficial not only to corporations themselves, but also enables developing countries to increase the competitiveness and stability of their economies. Countries in transition are also becoming more and more actively involved in this process.
Working in general for globalization, the cooperation of enterprises within the framework of TNCs means at the same time that certain segments of world markets are actually becoming more closed, including for competition from other participants, since the terms of cooperation agreements and prices (transfer) are set primarily based on the interests relevant TNCs. Naturally, these market segments are difficult to regulate and liberalize internationally, including under WTO rules, which is one of the most difficult problems in the work of this organization. That is why the further improvement of the multilateral regulation of world trade, primarily in the interests of TNCs and leading world powers, through the WTO system and the growing opposition from developing countries to the trade policy of “equal opportunities”, which does not take into account their interests, will become one of the main specific features of international trade. in the foreseeable future.
5. International trade in goods and services is increasingly intertwined with the international movement of capital. Further Libera
The lysis of trade, the intensification of capital movements, and the growing mobility of factors of production increase the trend towards intertwining
export of goods and services with the export of capital. The investments of exporting countries are increasingly being used to promote foreign markets.
markets for goods and services, in particular, for the creation of production, marketing and retail chains or commercial presence of service companies.
This practice is also used to circumvent customs or other protection of national markets.
For 1981-2000 the global volume of capital outflow increased by 7.7 times, i.e. 3 times faster than exporting goods. Of decisive importance is foreign direct investment (FDI), which currently accounts for almost a third of cross-border capital movements. These investments are also concentrated in developed countries - the USA, Canada, EU countries. The distribution of FDI by industry reflects the trend in the structural development of world production and international exchange. Over the decade of the 1990s, the share of the manufacturing industry in terms of FDI stock remained practically unchanged (42%), while in the service sector they increased from 44% to 50%.
Foreign direct investment is carried out in two main forms: through the creation of new capacities and production facilities and through mergers and acquisitions. The first path means real investments, the creation of industries and jobs, as a rule, the influx of new technologies. Mergers and acquisitions of companies are used to access foreign assets, enter the market, diversify production and trading activities. In the structure of world FDI, the share of mergers and acquisitions reached its peak in 2000, amounting to 90%, which is equal to 3.5% of world GDP against an average of 0.5% in the late 1980s.
6. The driving force behind the expansion of world flows of goods, services and investments are TNCs, which today number more than 65 thousand.
and 850 thousand of their foreign branches. The foreign network of TNCs accounts for approximately 1/|0 of world GDP (V30 in the early 1980s). Volume of sales
foreign affiliates in 2001 reached 16 trillion dollars. (2.5 trillion - in the early 80s), which is more than twice the world export of goods and services.
The export of foreign affiliates exceeds 3.5 trillion dollars, and the total number of employees is over 50 million people. Geographically, 80% of parent TNCs are concentrated in developed countries, of which 60% are in Western Europe.
Among the largest TNCs in the world in terms of assets, the leaders are General Electric (USA - electronics and electrical equipment), General Motors (USA - automotive industry), Ford Motor Company (USA - automotive industry), whose total assets exceed 1 trillion to
7. Over the past decades, competition has sharply intensified in world markets, resulting in a tightening of quality requirements for exported products. The traditional price competition of manufacturers is increasingly giving way to an orientation towards a more complete satisfaction of the needs and expectations of the consumer. Change the very concept of "quality". It now covers not only the consumer properties of the goods and the requirements for their safety and environmental friendliness, but also the methods of organizing the entire system of production, service and marketing. International quality standards (ISO 9000 series) are increasingly complemented by environmental management standards (HCq 14000), the implementation of which is considered by international business and their organizations, such as the International Chamber of Commerce, as an essential element not only of competitiveness, but also more social responsibility of business to society.

26.3. Foreign trade policy in the era of globalization

The production of goods, especially technically complex goods, is now increasingly distributed among countries with comparative advantages. An increasing number of goods and services are becoming not just items of international trade, but also a universal trading system, more important^. whose task is to harmonize measures to reduce customs administrative and technical barriers, harmonize and unify the legal norms for regulating foreign trade in the participating countries.
Gradually formed a holistic multi-level system of international, people's regulation, which is characterized by the coexistence^ national, transnational, regional and global forms^ The growing interdependence of national economies is forcing the state. the right to pursue a foreign economic policy that is taken into account. not only its own interests, but also the positions of partner countries^ as well as the interests of transnational entrepreneurial capital.
The ever-increasing weakening of barriers to the movement of goods, services and capital is the essence of modern liberalization policy. Despite the conflicting interests of the participants, the regulation of international trade is becoming more and more orderly in the world economy. However, liberalization should not be taken lightly. In fact, the regulation of world trade flows is an extremely complex and contradictory task.
Among a large number international organizations of the UN system and outside of it, the most universal and influential in terms of its impact on international trade is the World Trade Organization (WTO) - the assignee of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), created back in 1947 and carried out a number of rounds of global negotiations on the liberalization of international trade. As a result, to date, the level of import duties on industrial products has decreased 10 times, or to 3-4%.
The WTO, whose members are more than 150 states, regulates more than 9/10 of world trade in goods and services. The merit of the GATT-WTO was the generalization of legal norms and instruments of state regulation of foreign trade of the vast majority of countries in the world, which was achieved through multilateral interstate agreements. The provisions of these agreements are binding on all WTO member countries. This is the fundamental difference between GATT 1994 and GATT! 947 Member countries are required to bring their legislation into full compliance with the rules of the GATT 1994.
There are three components of modern national trade and political systems:
reliance on legal provisions defining specific powers
whose executive power, rights and obligations of business entities
comrades in the field of foreign economic activity;
unification and harmonization of national regulation instruments with the principles, norms and practice of the WTO;
the complex nature of the application of measures of state regulation and management of foreign trade, including:
economic means - customs duties, taxes, subsidies, etc.;
administrative measures - prohibitions and restrictions, licensing and quotas, "voluntary restrictions" on exports, etc.;
technical means (barriers) - technical norms, standards, methods of compliance, certification, sanitary and veterinary, environmental and health standards:
means of monetary and financial regulation - exchange rates, bank discount rates, lending and guaranteeing export operations, etc.;
- protection of national producers from unfair (unfair) foreign competition and assistance to national producers and exporters in increasing their competitiveness in the world market.
Traditionally, the main principles of international trade is the regime of the most favored nation. However, the increasing regionalization of trade flows and the proliferation of closed economic groupings may minimize the effect of MFN treatment on these groupings.
Under such conditions, and given the growing liberalization, especially in the service sector and foreign investment, national treatment is of paramount importance, i.e. ensuring an equal competitive environment in the market of the porter's country for foreign suppliers.
The mechanism of multilateral regulation of world trade by the WTO consists of a set of measures fixed in a number of multilateral agreements: the Agreement on the Customs Value of Goods, the Anti-Dumping Code, the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, the Kyoto Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures, the Code on Technical Barriers in trade, the Code on Import Licensing, etc. These agreements have already created a rather rigid system of measures of customs-tariff and non-tariff regulation, replacing more than 2,000 previous bilateral agreements of countries in this area.
The organizational and legal mechanism of the WTO consists of three parts: GATT as amended in 1994, which accounts for 4/5 of all WTO documents; General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS); Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). The central place of the WTO in the system of regulation of international trade became possible largely due to the effective impact on the entire trading system, including by strengthening the functions of monitoring the fulfillment by WTO members of their obligations. The WTO has retained the decision-making mechanism established in the GATT: formally by voting, but, in essence, through consensus, giving the right to the “major trading nations” to retain control over decision-making, despite the fact that 2/3 of the votes in this international organization belong to developing countries.
In the legal structure of the WTO, the position of these countries, which enjoyed certain benefits in the "old" GATT, worsened, as these benefits either disappeared or were seriously weakened. That is why the directions of the WTO activities for the coming years cause serious disagreement among its participants. Developing countries believe that the decisions of the last, Uruguay Round, have not yet been implemented. In particular, the US, EU, Japan continue to maintain high barriers to textile imports and extremely high protectionist protection of their agriculture. Western countries, in turn, insist on further expansion of the scope of the WTO.

26.4. Russia in international trade

The current position of Russia in international trade is clearly dissonant with the established trends and tendencies of participation in the international division of labor of the vast majority of countries. Possessing unique natural resources, a large industrial, scientific and human potential, Russia is still satisfied with the position of a country of fuel and raw materials specialization. Up to 90% of its exports are energy, raw materials and semi-finished products, and its share in world trade does not exceed 1.5%.
The high Russian export quota of 45% in 2000, calculated at the official exchange rate of the Bank of Russia, compared with 7-8% in the Soviet era, is a direct result of the loss of almost half of the country's economic potential in the 1990s, rising prices and depreciation of the ruble after August 1998. At the same time, this quota is not an indicator of a diversified economy, but most likely indicates an excessive dependence on the demand of the external market, the conjuncture of which for these goods can change dramatically in the long term. The extractive industry and primary processing industries have the highest export dependence: in the production of energy resources - 46% for oil, 33% for gas, and in metallurgy, wood processing, basic chemistry and the production of mineral fertilizers, the export quota reaches 70-80%.
In recent years, it is the export of raw materials due to high prices on the world market, especially for oil, that has become the locomotive for the development of the entire national economy and its further focus on fuel and raw materials. In 1996-2000 exports increased by more than 22%, providing a 6.5% increase in GDP and a decisive contribution to overcoming the consequences of the 1998 crisis.
In the crisis conditions of Russia's transition period, export earnings played the role of one of the few effective instruments for stabilizing the domestic financial market, replenishing the budget, maintaining the ruble exchange rate and accumulating sufficiently large foreign exchange reserves, which are so necessary to pay off the high external debt.
Data on foreign trade of the Russian Federation are given in Table. 26.4.

In 2003, Russia's trade turnover for the first time reached $200 billion. with an all-time large trade balance asset of $60 billion. At the same time, no serious positive changes have taken place in the structure of this turnover over the past decade. The main place in exports with a tendency to further increase is occupied by products of the extractive industries - 55% in 2002 against 45% in 1990, metals (about 19 and 16%, respectively), products of the chemical and timber processing industries (about 12 and 9%) , machinery, equipment and means of transport (9.5 and 18%), food and agricultural raw materials (2.6 and 2.1%).
Russian deliveries of science-intensive products to the world market amount to 8-8.5 billion dollars, or 7-8% of the total Russian export of goods and services. However, the main part of these deliveries ($6-7 billion) is accounted for by the so-called regime products - weapons, goods and services of the nuclear and rocket and space industries.
In the same years, the main import items continue to be machinery, equipment and means of transport (36 and 44%, respectively), food and agricultural raw materials (22.5 and 22.7%), chemical products (17 and 9%), textiles and shoes (5 and 9%), as well as some metals (6 and 5%).
The relatively high profitability of commodity exports that has been maintained in recent years and the economic policy that has taken shape with this in mind and the interests of leading industrial and financial groups give little hope for a large-scale spillover of income to the manufacturing sectors of the Russian Federation. Moreover, large assets still continue to be diverted abroad.
As is known, fuel and raw material specialization is futile, since it actually means eating away national wealth, seriously undermines the production and scientific and technical potential of the nation's development and, ultimately, its international competitiveness. Changing the export orientation is possible only with active state intervention, which seems to be an extremely difficult task.
The improvement of Russia's international specialization would be possible in the following main areas. Firstly, this is a serious diversification of existing exports by increasing the degree of processing of manufactured products, expanding the range of main export commodity groups, and more actively involving new regions of the country in foreign economic activity. This is perhaps the least expensive route.
Another way is the all-round expansion of domestic high-tech exports, including products of electrical engineering, electronics, scientific instrumentation, special equipment and weapons, goods and services of the nuclear and aerospace industries. Potential opportunities for entering the foreign market for these industries are provided by the rapidly developing technological and industrial cooperation in the world. The difficulties on this path today are the relatively low quality of domestic products, the lack of access to the consumer market for many types of special equipment and services, the disruption of previously established links between science and production, and its mostly outdated technological base. Russia has the opportunity to provide financial support for these areas in the form of a record high gold and foreign exchange reserve (about $100 billion in mid-2004) and fairly large funds accumulated in the “stabilization fund”, mainly due to the extremely favorable situation on the world oil market.
In addition, the real way for our enterprises to successfully enter the highly competitive world markets in the most dynamic sector of the world economy and international trade - the manufacturing industry - lies through extensive cooperation with leading companies in industrialized countries.
The main trade and political problem for Russia today is finding acceptable conditions for accession to the WTO, which opens the way for our country's equal participation in international trade. During the negotiations on the part of the most influential members of this organization, the so-called quadro, i.e. USA, EU, Japan and Canada, Russia has requirements that are not obligatory for the joining countries. Among them are the complete abolition of import duties on a wide range of goods, the refusal to regulate domestic prices (tariffs) for energy resources and their increase to world levels, large-scale liberalization of the service sector, limiting state support for agriculture and subsidies for exporters of agricultural products. These demands speak of a desire to accept Russia on terms different from the "standard", i.e. under the conditions that the WTO usually applies to countries with a weak competitive position.
It should be taken into account that the degree of liberalization of Russian imports is already quite high. Thus, the arithmetic average level of duties in Russia in 2001 was 11.8% against 7.8% in 1993. For the EU, this figure is 3.9 and 3.7%, respectively, and for the USA, 4.0 and 5.6%. At the same time, it is known that India, China, Vietnam, Romania, Bulgaria, Mexico, Brazil and a number of other countries that have recently become WTO members already have a higher level of customs protection compared to Russia.
The essence of the discussion in our country on the issue of participation in the WTO boils down to the fact that it should not be an end in itself and cannot be achieved by any foam. The main benefit for the country, if it joins the WTO, is the "voluntary-compulsory" formation of a truly market, competitive environment, where all participants in foreign economic activity will have to comply with the rules of the game established in the world. As a result, gradually, during a predetermined transitional period, a predictable and reliable organizational and legal basis for sustainable and confident further economic growth of Russia will be created.

Basic terms and definitions

Major trading powers- economically highly developed countries, primarily the USA, Germany, Japan. France and UK.
Terms of trade index— the ratio of average export prices to average import prices, i.e. the purchasing power of 100 exports expressed in terms of imports.

Questions for self-control

Expand the essence of the concepts of "international division of labor"; "international specialization and cooperation", show their role in the development of world trade and global production.
What are the "comparative advantages" of a country's participation in world trade?
What are the main indicators characterizing the degree of participation of the country in international trade.
How is the relationship between trade in goods and services manifested?
What goods and services determine the development of modern international trade?
What are the main directions and features of modern trade policy (bilateral and multilateral)?
What are the features of the application of the most favorable regime and national treatment?
What is the specificity of Russia's participation in international trade, the features of its commodity structure of exports and imports?
What is the difference between the WTO and other international economic organizations?
10. Under what conditions is Russia's accession to the WTO possible?

Literature
Bulletins of foreign commercial information (BIKI) for 2003-2004. M.: VNIKI.
Foreign Economic Bulletin. Monthly business magazine for 2003-2004. M.: VAVT.
Dumoulin I.I. World Trade organisation. M.: VAVT, 2000.
Dumoulin PL I. International trade in services. M.: VAVT, 2001.
Dumoulin I.I. Customs and tariff regulation (foreign experience) M .: VAVT, 1998.
Oreshkin V.A. Foreign economic complex of Russia in terms of integration into the world economy. M.: IMEMO, 2002.
Oreshkin V.L. Indicators of the development of the world economy, the economy of foreign countries and Russia, international trade and Russia's foreign trade. M: VAVT, 2003.
Piskulov Yu.V., Seltsovsky V.L. World Economy and Trade: A Statistical Handbook. M., 1998.
Piskulov Yu.V., Churin N.F. Scientific and technical policy of the leading countries of the world and its influence on international trade. M: VAVT, 2004.

Pregnancy and childbirth

Turkey in sour cream sauce in a pan

amazing

Chicken rolls in bacon

Nature

What can be cooked from onions - recipes for delicious dishes

Products	2003	2010
agricultural products	14,6	12,0
Food	11,1	9,5
Agricultural raw materials	3,5	2,5
Extractive industry products	24,3	11,9
Ores, minerals and ferrous metals	3,8	3,1
Fuel	20,5	8,8
Manufactured goods	57,3	73,3
Equipment and vehicles	28,8	37,8
Chemical products	7,4	9,0
Semi-finished products	6,4	7,5
Textiles and clothing	4,9	6,9
Cast iron and steel	3,4	3,0
Other finished goods	6,3	9,2
Other goods	3,8	2,8

Family and health. Pregnancy and childbirth. Fashion & Style

1 international trade in goods and services. International trade in goods and services. Technology as a commodity in the world market. Foreign trade policy in the era of globalization

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar Documents

26.1. The place and role of international trade in goods and services in the modern system of world economic relations

26.2. The main trends and features of the development of international trade

26.3. Foreign trade policy in the era of globalization

26.4. Russia in international trade

Basic terms and definitions

Questions for self-control

Turkey in sour cream sauce in a pan

Chicken rolls in bacon

What can be cooked from onions - recipes for delicious dishes

Blue onion recipes. Onion dishes from onions. Pickled onions for barbecue

Cooking time for potatoes. How to boil potatoes? How long does it take to cook and how do you know when it's ready? How long does a whole potato in their skins cook after boiling

How and how long to cook potatoes for different dishes

Jellied chicken pie - juicy, fragrant and tender pastries