Seven Years' War

Prussia's rapid rise aroused general envy and dismay among the European powers. Austria, having lost Silesia in 1734, longed for revenge. France was worried about Frederick II's rapprochement with England. Russian Chancellor Bestuzhev considered Prussia to be the worst and most dangerous enemy Russian Empire.

Back in 1755, Bestuzhev was fussing about concluding a so-called subsidized treaty with England. England was to be given gold, and Russia was to send 30-40 thousand troops. This project was destined to remain a project. Bestuzhev, correctly taking into account the significance of the "Prussian danger" for Russia, at the same time reveals a complete lack of maturity of judgment.

He believes to crush the Prussia of Frederick II "with a corps of 30-40 thousand", and for money he turns to none other than to Prussia's ally - England. Under such circumstances, in January 1756, Prussia entered into an alliance with England, the answer to which was the formation of a triple coalition of Austria, France and Russia, joined by Sweden and Saxony.

Austria demanded the return of Silesia, Russia was promised East Prussia(with the right to exchange it from Poland for Courland), Sweden and Saxony are tempted by other Prussian lands: the first - Pomerania, the second - Lusatia. Soon almost all German principalities joined this coalition. The soul of the whole coalition was Austria, which provided the largest army and had the best diplomacy. Austria very cleverly managed to force all her allies, and mainly Russia, to serve her interests.

While the allies shared the skin of an unkilled bear, Frederick, surrounded by enemies, decided not to wait for their blows, but to start on his own. In August 1756, he was the first to open hostilities, taking advantage of the unpreparedness of the allies, invaded Saxony, surrounded the Saxon army in the camp near Pirna and forced it to lay down its arms. Saxony immediately fell out of action, and its captured army almost entirely went over to the Prussian service.

The Russian army campaign was announced in October 1756 and during the winter it was supposed to concentrate in Lithuania. Field Marshal Count Apraksin was appointed commander in chief, placed in the closest dependence on the Conference - an institution borrowed from the Austrians and representing in Russian conditions a worsened edition of the notorious "gofkriegsrat". The members of the Conference were: Chancellor Bestuzhev, Prince Trubetskoy, Field Marshal Buturlin, and the Shuvalov brothers. However, our “Austrophilism” was not limited to this alone, but went much further: the Conference immediately fell entirely under Austrian influence and, commanding an army a thousand miles from Petersburg, it seemed to be guided primarily by observing the interests of the Vienna Cabinet.

In 1757, three main theaters were identified, which then existed throughout the entire Seven Years' War - the Franco-Imperial, the main, or Austrian, and Russian.

Fusilier, chief officer, grenadiers of the Tengin Infantry Regiment, 1732–1756 Colored engraving

The campaign was opened by Frederick, moving at the end of April from different directions - concentrically - to Bohemia. He defeated the Austrian army of Prince Charles of Lorraine near Prague and locked it in Prague. However, the second Austrian army of Daun moved to its rescue, defeating Frederick at Kolin (June). Frederick retreated to Saxony, and by the end of the summer his position became critical. Prussia was surrounded by 300,000 enemies. The king entrusted the defense against Austria to the Duke of Bevern, and he hurried to the West. Having bribed the commander-in-chief of the northern French army, the Duke of Richelieu, and secured his inaction, he, after some hesitation caused by bad news from the East, turned to the southern Franco-imperial army. Frederick II would not have been a Prussian and a German if he had acted in the same honest ways.

With an army of 21,000, he utterly defeated the 64,000 Franco-Imperials of Soubise at Rossbach, and then moved into Silesia, where Bevernsky was meanwhile defeated at Breslau. On December 5, Frederick attacked the Austrians and literally incinerated their army in the famous battle of Leuthen. This is the most brilliant of all Frederick's campaigns; according to Napoleon, for one Leithen he is worthy of being called a great commander.

The Russian army, operating in the secondary East Prussian theater of the war, remained aloof from the main events of the 1757 campaign. Its concentration in Lithuania took the whole winter and spring. There was a great shortage in the troops, which was especially felt in the officers.

We did not go on a trip with a light heart. We were afraid of the Prussians. Since the time of Peter I and, especially, Anna, the German has been a reserved creature for us - a different, higher order, a teacher and a boss. The Prussian, on the other hand, was a German to all Germans. “Frederick, they say, beat the Frenchman himself, and even more Tsars - where can we stand against him with many sinners! ..” So the future winners near Palzig and Kunersdorf argued, kneading the Lithuanian mud with their boots. The nasty Russian habit of always belittling oneself in comparison with a foreigner ... After the first skirmish on the border, where three of our dragoon regiments were overturned by the Prussian hussars, "great timidity, cowardice and fear" took possession of the whole army, which, however, had an effect on the tops much stronger than on bottoms.

By May, the concentration of our army on the Neman was over. There were 89,000 people in it, of which no more than 50-55 thousand “really fighting” were fit for battle, the rest were non-combatants of any kind, or unorganized Kalmyks armed with bows and arrows.

Prussia was defended by the army of Field Marshal Lewald (30,500 regular and up to 10,000 armed inhabitants). Friedrich, busy fighting Austria and France, treated the Russians with disdain:

“Russian barbarians do not deserve to be mentioned here,” he once remarked in one of his letters.

The Russian commander-in-chief depended entirely on the St. Petersburg Conference. He did not have the right to dispose of the troops without a formal “approbation” of the cabinet each time, he did not have the right to take the initiative in the event of a change in the situation, and he had to communicate with St. Petersburg over all sorts of trifles. In the campaign of 1757, the Conference instructed him to maneuver in such a way that for him "it would not matter for him to march straight on Prussia or to the left through all Poland into Silesia." The purpose of the campaign was to capture East Prussia, but Apraksin was not sure until June that part of his army would not be sent to Silesia to reinforce the Austrians.

S. F. Apraksin. Unknown artist

On June 25, Farmer's vanguard captured Memel, which was the signal for the opening of the campaign. Apraksin went with the main forces to Verzhbolovo and Gumbinen, sending the vanguard of General Sibilsky - 6,000 horses, to Friedland to act in the rear of the Prussians. The movement of our army was distinguished by slowness, which is explained by administrative troubles, an abundance of artillery and the fear of the Prussian troops, about which there were whole legends. On July 10, the main forces crossed the border, on the 15th they passed Gumbinen and on the 18th they occupied Insterburg. Sibilsky's cavalry did not live up to the hopes placed on it, as a hundred and fifty years later - in the same places, their detachment of Khan of Nakhichevan would not justify them ... Levald was waiting for the Russians in a strong position across the Alle River, near Velau. Having united with the vanguard - Farmer and Sibilsky, Apraksin moved on August 12 to Allenburg, in a deep bypass of the position of the Prussians. Upon learning of this movement, Lewald hurried to meet the Russians and attacked them at Gross-Egernsdorf on August 19, but was repulsed. Lewald had 22,000 people in this battle, Apraksin had up to 57,000, of which, however, half did not take part in the case. The fate of the battle was decided by Rumyantsev, who seized the infantry of the vanguard and went with it through the forest with hostility. The Prussians did not survive this attack. The trophies of victory were 29 guns and 600 prisoners. The damage of the Prussians - up to 4000, ours - over 6000. This first victory had the most beneficial effect on the troops, showing them that the Prussian is no worse than the Swede and the Turk is running from the Russian bayonet. She made the Prussians think too.

After the Battle of Jagernsdorf, the Prussians withdrew to Weslau. Apraksin moved after them and on August 25 began to bypass their right flank. Lewald did not accept the fight and retreated. The military council assembled by Apraksin decided, in view of the difficulty of supplying the army, to retreat to Tilsit, where to put the economic unit in order. On August 27, the retreat began, carried out very covertly (the Prussians only learned about it on September 4). On the march, it became clear that, due to the complete disorder, it was impossible to go on the offensive that same autumn and it was decided to retreat to Courland. On September 13, Tilsit will be abandoned, and the Russian military council decided to evade battle with Lewald's vanguard despite all our superiority in strength; "Cowardice and fear", of course, was no longer in sight, but the notorious "timidity", apparently, did not have time to completely leave our senior commanders. On September 16, the entire army was withdrawn beyond the Neman. The campaign of 1757 ended in vain due to the extraordinary embarrassment of the actions of the commander-in-chief by cabinet strategists and the disorder of the economic part.

Musketeer headquarters and chief officers of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

Chief officer and reytar of the Life Guards Horse Regiment, 1732–1742 Colored engraving

Chief officer of the Horse Regiment, 1742–1762 Colored engraving

The conference demanded an immediate transition to the offensive, as our diplomacy promised the Allies. Apraksin refused, was removed from office and put on trial, died from a blow without waiting for the trial. He was treated unfairly, Apraksin did everything that could be done in his place by any chief of average talents and abilities, put in a really impossible position and bound hand and foot by the Conference.

Instead of Apraksin, General Farmer was appointed commander-in-chief - an excellent administrator, a caring boss (Suvorov recalled him as a "second father"), but at the same time he was fussy and indecisive. The farmer took up the organization of the troops and the establishment of the economic part.

Frederick II, dismissive of the Russians, did not even allow the thought that the Russian army would be able to make a winter campaign. He sent the entire army of Lewald to Pomerania against the Swedes, leaving only 6 garrison companies in East Prussia. The farmer knew this, but, not receiving orders, did not move.

In the meantime, the Conference, in order to refute the reprehensible opinions about fighting qualities that went around in Europe through the efforts of the Prussian "gazetters" Russian troops, ordered the Farmer to move to East Prussia on the first snow.

On the first day of January 1758, the columns of Saltykov and Rumyantsev (30,000) crossed the border. On January 11, Koenigsberg was occupied, and then all of East Prussia, turned into a Russian general government. We were acquiring a valuable base for further operations and, as a matter of fact, we had achieved our goal of the war. The Prussian population, sworn into Russian citizenship by Apraksin, did not oppose our troops, while the local authorities were sympathetic to Russia. Having mastered East Prussia, Farmer wanted to move on Danzig, but was stopped by the Conference, which ordered him to wait for the arrival of the Observation Corps, demonstrate together with the Swedes to Küstrin, and then go with the army to Frankfurt. In anticipation of summer time, the Farmer deployed most of the army at Thorn and Posen, not particularly concerned about maintaining the neutrality of the Commonwealth.

On July 2, the army set off for the Franfort, as directed. It numbered 55,000 fighters. The disorder of the Observation Corps, ignorance of the terrain, food shortages, and the constant interference of the Conference led to wasted time, lengthy halts and counter marches. All maneuvers were carried out under the cover of Rumyantsev's cavalry of 4,000 sabers, whose actions can be called exemplary.

The military council decided not to get involved in the battle with the Don corps, which had warned us in Frankfurt, and to go to Kustrin to communicate with the Swedes. On August 3, our army approached Kustrin and on the 4th began bombarding it.

Frederick P. himself hurried to the rescue of the threatened Brandenburg. Leaving 40,000 people against the Austrians, he moved to the Oder with 15,000, joined the Don corps and went down the Oder to the Russians. The farmer lifted the siege of Küstrin and retreated to Zorndorf on August 11, where he took up a strong position. For the expulsion of Rumyantsev's division to the crossings across the Oder, in the ranks of the Russian army there were 42,000 people with 240 guns. The Prussians had 33,000 and 116 guns.

Frederick bypassed the Russian position from the rear and forced our army to give him a battle with an inverted front. The bloody battle of Zorndorf on August 14 had no tactical consequences. Both armies "crashed one against the other." Morally, Zorndorf is a Russian victory and a cruel blow to Friedrich. Here, as they say, "I found a scythe on a stone" - and the Prussian king saw that "these people can be killed rather than defeated."

Here he also experienced his first disappointment: the vaunted Prussian infantry, having tasted the Russian bayonet, refused to attack a second time. The honor of this bloody day belongs to Seydlitz's armored men and those old regiments of the iron Russian infantry, on which the gust of their avalanches crashed ... The Russian army had to rebuild the front already under fire. Its right and left flanks were separated by a ravine. Friedrich's detour maneuver pinned our army to the Mitchell River and turned the main advantage of our Zorndorf position into an extreme disadvantage, the river found itself in the rear. On the part of Farmer, who was completely out of control of the battle, not the slightest attempt was made to coordinate the actions of the two disunited masses, and this allowed Frederick to fall first on our right flank, then on our left. In both cases, the Prussian infantry was repulsed and overturned, but, pursuing it, the Russians became upset and fell under the blow of the Prussian cavalry masses. We had almost no cavalry, only 2700, the rest under Rumyantsev. By the end of the battle, the front of the armies made a right angle with the original front, the battlefield and the trophies on it were, as it were, divided in half.

Our loss - 19,500 killed and wounded, 3,000 prisoners, 11 banners, 85 guns - 54 percent of the entire army. Out of 9143 people, only 1687 remained in the ranks of the Observation Corps.

The Prussians - 10,000 killed and wounded, 1,500 prisoners, 10 banners and 26 guns - up to 35 percent of the total. The steadfastness of the Russians, Frederick II, set an example for his own troops, especially the infantry.

By pulling Rumyantsev to him, the Farmer could have resumed the battle with a greater chance of success, but he missed this opportunity. Frederick retreated to Silesia - the Farmer set out to capture the heavily fortified Kolberg in Pomerania. He acted indecisively and at the end of October withdrew the army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1758 - a successful winter and unsuccessful summer campaigns - was generally favorable for Russian weapons.

On the remaining fronts, Friedrich continued active defense, acting along internal lines of operations. At Gohkirch, he was defeated, Daun attacked him at night, but the indecision of Daun, who did not dare to take advantage of his victory, despite the double superiority in forces, rescued the Prussians.

V. V. Farmer. Artist A. P. Antropov

By the opening of the 1759 campaign, the quality of the Prussian army was no longer what it had been in previous years. Many military generals and officers, old and experienced soldiers died. The ranks had to put prisoners and defectors on a par with untrained recruits. Lacking those forces, Frederick decided to abandon his usual initiative in opening the campaign and wait first for the actions of the allies, in order to then maneuver on their messages. Being interested in the short duration of the campaign due to the scarcity of his funds, the Prussian king sought to slow down the start of the Allied operations, and to this end, undertook cavalry raids on their rear to destroy stores. In that era of store rations for armies and the "five transition system", the destruction of stores entailed the disruption of the campaign plan. The first raid on the Russian rear in Poznań by small forces in February went well for the Prussians, although it did not cause any particular harm to the Russian army. Rumyantsev vainly pointed out to Farmer, when occupying apartments, all the disadvantages and danger of cordon location. This even caused them to break up. In 1759, Rumyantsev did not receive a position in active army, and was appointed an inspector of the rear, from where Saltykov was already called up for the army. Another raid into the rear of the Austrians in April was much more successful, and the Austrian headquarters were so frightened by it that they abandoned all active operations during the spring and early summer.

Meanwhile, the St. Petersburg Conference, finally falling under the influence of Austria, developed a plan of operations for 1759, according to which the Russian army became auxiliary to the Austrian. It was supposed to be brought up to 120,000, of which 90,000 should be sent to join the Tsesars, and 30,000 left on the Lower Vistula.

At the same time, the commander-in-chief did not indicate at all where exactly to connect with the Austrians and what to be guided by when performing operations “upstream or downstream of the Oder”.

It was not possible to complete the army even up to half of what was expected - due to the insistent demands of the Austrians, they had to set out on a campaign before the arrival of reinforcements. At the end of May, the army marched from Bromberg to Posen and, moving slowly, arrived there only on the 20th of June. Here the rescript of the Conference was received, appointing Count Saltykov as commander-in-chief, the Farmer received one of 3 divisions. Saltykov was ordered to connect with the Austrians at the point where these last addition wish, he was then ordered, "without obeying Down, to listen to his advice" - by no means sacrificing the army for the sake of Austrian interests - and, to top it all, not to engage in battle with superior forces.

Frederick II, confident in Daun's passivity, transferred 30,000 from the "Austrian" front to the "Russian" one - and decided to defeat the Russians before joining them with the Austrians. The Prussians acted sluggishly and missed an opportunity to break the Russian army in parts.

Not embarrassed by the presence of this strong enemy mass on his left flank, Saltykov moved on July 6 from Poznan in a southerly direction - to Karolat and Crossen to join the Austrians there. He had under his command up to 40,000 combatants. The Russian army brilliantly made an extremely risky and courageous flanking march, and Saltykov took measures in case the army was cut off from its base - Poznan.

P. S. Saltykov. Engraving

The Prussians hurried after Saltykov to get ahead of him at Crossen. On July 12, in the battle of Palzig, they were defeated and driven back beyond the Oder - under the walls of the Krossen fortress. In the battle of Palzig, 40,000 Russians with 186 guns fought 28,000 Prussians. Against the linear battle order of the latter, Saltykov used separation in depth and a game of reserves, which gave us victory, which, unfortunately, was not brought to the complete destruction of the Prussians by a sufficiently energetic pursuit of the enemy.

Our damage is 894 killed, 3897 wounded. The Prussians lost 9,000 people: 7,500 retired in battle and 1,500 deserted. In fact, their damage was much more significant, and it can be considered no less than 12,000, the Russians buried 4,228 bodies alone killed Prussians. 600 prisoners, 7 banners and standards, 14 guns were taken.

All this time, Down was inactive. The Austrian commander-in-chief based his plans on Russian blood. Fearing to engage in battle with Frederick, despite his double superiority in strength, Daun sought to bring the Russians under the first fire and draw them to him - deep into Silesia. But Saltykov, who had managed to "bite" his Austrian colleague, did not succumb to this "strategy", but decided after the Palzig victory to move on Frankfurt and threaten Berlin.

This movement of Saltykov equally alarmed both Friedrich and Daun. The Prussian king feared for his capital, the Austrian commander-in-chief did not want a victory won by the Russians alone without the participation of the Austrians (which could have important political consequences). Therefore, while Frederick was concentrating his army in the Berlin region, Daun, "carefully guarding" the weak Prussian barrier left against him, moved Laudon's corps to Frankfurt, ordering him to warn the Russians there and profit from the indemnity. This ingenious calculation did not materialize: the Franfort was already occupied by the Russians on July 19.

Having captured Frankfurt, Saltykov intended to move Rumyantsev with cavalry to Berlin, but the appearance of Friedrich there forced him to abandon this plan. In connection with Laudon, he had 58,000 men, with whom he took up a strong position at Kunersdorf.

Against the 50,000 Prussians of Friedrich in the Berlin region, three masses of allies concentrated in this way: from the east, 58,000 soldiers of Saltykov, 80 versts from Berlin; from the south 65,000 Daun, 150 versts; from the west, 30,000 imperials, 100 versts away, Frederick decided to get out of this unbearable situation by attacking with all his forces the most dangerous enemy, the enemy who advanced most forward, the most brave and skillful, moreover, who did not have the habit of evading battle, in short - the Russians.

Reiter of the Horse Regiment, 1742–1762 Colored engraving

On August 1, he fell on Saltykov and in the fierce battle that took place at the Kunersdorf position - the famous "Franfort battle" - was utterly defeated, losing two-thirds of his army and all artillery. Friedrich intended to bypass the Russian army from the rear, as under Zorndorf, but Saltykov was not a Farmer: he immediately turned the front around. The Russian army was heavily echeloned in depth on a relatively narrow front. Friedrich shot down the first two lines, capturing up to 70 guns, but his attack bogged down, and Seydlitz's cavalry died, untimely rushing to the undisrupted Russian infantry. Having launched a crushing counteroffensive to the front and flank, the Russians overturned Frederick's army, and Rumyantsev's cavalry completely finished off the Prussians, who fled wherever they could. Of the 48,000 people, the king failed to collect even a tenth immediately after the battle! The Prussians show their final damage at 20,000 in the battle itself and over 2,000 deserters when fleeing. In fact, their loss should be at least 30,000. We buried 7,627 Prussian corpses on the site, took over 4,500 prisoners, 29 banners and standards, and all 172 guns that were in the Prussian army. Russian damage - up to 13,500 people (a third of the troops): 2614 killed, 10,863 wounded. In the Austrian corps of Laudon, about 2,500 lost. In total, the Allies lost 16,000 people. The despair of Frederick II is best expressed in his letter to one of his childhood friends, written the next day: “From an army of 48,000, I don’t have even 3,000 left at this moment. Everything is running, and I no longer have power over the army ... In Berlin they will do well if they think about their safety. A cruel misfortune, I will not survive it. The consequences of the battle will be even worse than the battle itself: I have no more means, and, to tell the truth, I consider everything lost. I will not survive the loss of my fatherland. Farewell forever". The pursuit was short-lived; Saltykov had no more than 23,000 men left after the battle, and he could not reap the fruits of his brilliant victory.

Down, devoured by envy of Saltykov, did nothing on his part to relieve him, but with idle "advice" he only annoyed the Russian commander in chief.

Frederick II came to his senses after Kunersdorf, gave up thoughts of suicide and again assumed the title of commander in chief (which he resigned from himself in the evening of the "Franfort battle"); On August 18, near Berlin, Friedrich already had 33,000 people and he could calmly look at the future. Daun's inaction saved Prussia.

The Austrian commander-in-chief persuaded Saltykov to move to Silesia for a joint offensive against Berlin, but one raid by the Prussian hussars to the rear was enough for Daun's hasty retreat to his original position ... He did not prepare the promised allowance for the Russians.

The indignant Saltykov decided to act independently and headed for the Glogau fortress, but Friedrich, having foreseen his intention, moved parallel to Saltykov in order to warn him. Both had 24,000 soldiers each, and Saltykov decided not to get involved in the battle this time: he considered it inappropriate to risk these troops 500 miles from his base. Friedrich, remembering Kunersdorf, did not insist on a battle. On September 14, the opponents dispersed, and on the 19th, Saltykov retreated to winter quarters on the Varta River. The winner at Kunersdorf, who received the field marshal's baton, had the civic courage to prefer the interests of Russia to the interests of Austria and reject the demand of the Conference, which insisted on wintering in Silesia together with the Austrians and the outfit of 20-30 thousand Russian infantry in the Laudon corps. Having already arrived at the Warta, Saltykov, at the insistence of the Austrians, showed the appearance that he was returning to Prussia. By this, he saved the valiant Daun and his eighty thousandth army from the Prussian offensive, which the Caesar commander imagined.

Officer and Sergeant of the Life Company, 1742–1762 Colored engraving

The campaign of 1759 could decide the fate of the Seven Years' War, and with it the fate of Prussia. Fortunately for Frederick, he had opponents, in addition to the Russians, also the Austrians.

In the campaign of 1760, Saltykov planned to capture Danzig, Kolberg and Pomerania, and from there to act on Berlin. But the “home-grown Austrians” at their Conference decided otherwise and again sent the Russian army “on errands” to the Austrians in Silesia - everyone equaled the winners at Kunersdorf with the losers at Leuthen! At the same time, Saltykov was also instructed to "make an attempt" to master Kolberg - to act in two diametrically opposite operational directions. Saltykov's position was further complicated by the fact that the Austrians did not inform him of either Frederick's movements or their own. At the end of June, Saltykov, with 60,000 and a supply of provisions for 2 months, set out from Poznan and slowly moved towards Breslau, where, in the meantime, the Austrians of Laudon also headed. However, the Prussians forced Laudon to retreat from Breslau, and Frederick II, who arrived in Silesia, defeated him (August 4) at Liegnitz. Frederick II, with 30,000, arrived from Saxony on a forced march, having traveled 280 miles in 5 days (an army crossing - 56 miles). The Austrians demanded the transfer of Chernyshev's corps to the left bank of the Oder - into the mouth of the enemy, but Saltykov opposed this and retreated to Gernstadt, where the army stood until September 2. At the end of August, Saltykov fell dangerously ill and handed over his superiors to Farmer, who first tried to besiege Glogau, and then on September 10 withdrew the army near Crossen, deciding to act according to circumstances. The following fact perfectly characterizes the Farmer. Laudon asked for his help in the proposed siege of Glogau.

The farmer, who did not take a step without the permission of the Conference, notified St. Petersburg about this. While relations and relations were being written back and forth for 1,500 miles, Laudon changed his mind and decided not to besiege Glogau, but Kempen, about which he informed the Farmer. In the meantime, a rescript of the Conference was obtained, authorizing traffic on the Glogau. The farmer, a too well-disciplined commander, moved on Glogau, despite the fact that this movement, due to the changed situation, lost all meaning. Going to the fortress, the Farmer saw that it was impossible to take it without siege artillery. Chernyshev's corps, with Totleben's cavalry and Krasnoshchekov's Cossacks, totaling 23,000, half cavalry, was sent to raid Berlin.

Officer of the Musketeer Prince Wilhelm Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

Guards Grenadier Officer. Engraving

Oboe player, flute player and drummer of the Musketeer Regiment, 1756–1761 Colored engraving

The capture of the Kolberg fortress during the Seven Years' War. Artist A. Kotzebue

Flayer of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1763–1786 Engraving

On September 23, Totleben attacked Berlin, but was repulsed, and on the 28th Berlin surrendered. In addition to 23,000 Russians, 14,000 Lassi Austrians participated in the raid on Berlin. The capital was defended by 14,000 Prussians, of whom 4,000 were taken prisoner. The mint, the arsenal were destroyed and the indemnity was taken. The Prussian "newspapers", who, as we have seen, wrote all sorts of libels and fables about Russia and the Russian army, were duly flogged. This event hardly made them special Russophiles, but it is one of the most comforting episodes in our history. After spending four days in the enemy's capital, Chernyshev and Totleben withdrew from there as Frederick approached. The raid had no important results.

When the impossibility of any productive cooperation with the Austrians became clear, the Conference returned to Saltykov's original plan and ordered Farmer to seize Kolberg in Pomerania. Busy with organizing a raid on Berlin, Farmer moved Olitz's division under Kolberg. The new commander-in-chief, Field Marshal Buturlin, who arrived in the army (Saltykov was still ill), lifted the siege of Kolberg in view of the late season and in October led the entire army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1760 did not bring results ...

In 1761, following the example of a number of past campaigns, the Russian army was moved to Silesia to the Austrians.

From Thorn, she went on her usual way to Posen and Breslau, but at this last point she was forestalled by Frederick. Passing by Breslavl, Buturlin contacted Laudon. The entire campaign took place in marches and maneuvers. On the night of August 29, Buturlin decided to attack Frederick near Gochkirchen, but the Prussian king, not relying on his own strength, evaded the battle. In September, Frederick II moved to the messages of the Austrians, but the Russians, quickly connecting with these latter, prevented him and forced Frederick to retreat to the fortified camp at Bunzelwitz. Then Buturlin, reinforcing Laudon with Chernyshev's corps, withdrew to Pomerania. On September 21, Laudon took Schweidnitz by storm, with the Russians especially distinguished themselves, and soon after both sides took up winter quarters. During the assault on Schweidnitz, 2 Russian battalions were the first to climb the ramparts, then opened the gates to the Austrians and stood in perfect order with a gun at their feet on the ramparts, while at their feet the Austrians indulged in revelry and robbery. The Allies lost 1,400 men. 2600 Prussians surrendered with 240 guns, 1400 were killed.

Rumyantsev's corps, operating separately from the main army, approached Kolberg on August 5 and laid siege to it. The fortress turned out to be strong, and the siege, conducted with the help of the fleet, lasted four months, accompanied at the same time by actions against the Prussian partisans in the rear of the siege corps. Only Rumyantsev's indomitable energy made it possible to bring the siege to an end - the military council convened three times called for a retreat. Finally, on December 5, Kolberg surrendered, 5,000 prisoners, 20 banners, 173 guns were taken, and this was the last feat of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War.

The report on the surrender of Kolberg found Empress Elizabeth on her deathbed ... Emperor Peter III, who ascended the throne - an ardent admirer of Frederick - immediately stopped hostilities with Prussia, returned to her all the conquered areas (East Prussia was under Russian citizenship for 4 years) and ordered Chernyshev's corps to be under Prussian army. During the campaign of 1762, in the spring, Chernyshev's corps raided Bohemia and regularly cut down yesterday's Austrian allies, for whom the Russians at all times - and then especially - had contempt. When in early July Chernyshev was ordered to return to Russia, where a coup had taken place at that time, Friedrich begged him to stay for another "three days" - until the battle, which he gave on July 10 at Burkersdorf. The Russians did not participate in this battle, but by their very presence they greatly frightened the Austrians, who still did not know anything about the events in St. Petersburg.

So sadly and unexpectedly ended for us the Seven Years' War, which glorified Russian weapons.

Officer of the Grenadier Prince Wilhelm Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving author Vitkovsky Alexander Dmitrievich

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Seven Years' War 1756–1763 P. I. Shuvalov - Military Collegium August 12, 1756, St. Petersburg Mr. Lieutenant General and Chevalier Lopukhin reports to me that the Voronezh and Nevsky infantry regiments under his control this July 18th day he watched, and exercises ,

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) got its name from its length in time. It was the largest conflict of the 18th century. It happened not only...

Causes and results of the Seven Years' War. Major battles of the Seven Years' War 1756-1763

By Masterweb

29.04.2018 16:00

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) got its name from its length in time. It was the largest conflict of the 18th century. It took place not only in Europe, but also in North America, India, Caribbean. At one time, Churchill called it "the First World War." In history, this conflict is referred to as the third Silesian, Pomeranian, Carnatic, French-Indian, Recent War.

Causes

The main causes of the Seven Years' War were hidden behind the confrontation of world powers for colonies in North America. Military clashes there began two years before the declaration of war. England and France were the main rivals. Colonists from these countries unleashed an armed conflict. Allied Indians also took part in it. Another reason was the strengthening of Prussia in Europe. Many developed countries did not like this.

Other countries joined coalitions for their own benefit:

Austria wanted Silesia back.
Prussia hoped to capture Saxony.
Sweden sought to retake Stettin and a number of other lands.
Russia fought for East Prussia.

Countries united in coalitions. One included England, Prussia, Hanover, the other - France, Austria, Russia, Spain. This was rather unusual, since France and Austria had long fought each other for hegemony in Europe.

Opponents

The main states that participated in the Seven Years' War (opponents) and their commanders-in-chief:

Prussia was ruled by Frederick II. He was the emperor and commander-in-chief in one person, so he did not have to report to anyone.
England - King was George II.
Austria - Maria Theresa was at the head of the state, Karl Alexander was appointed commander. But after the unsuccessful battle of Leuthen, he resigned, the command passed to Leopold Joseph.
Russia - the rules in the country are Elizaveta Petrovna, the commander-in-chief was first Apraksin, he was replaced by Fermor, then Saltykov and Buturlin. They were subordinate to the St. Petersburg Conference. Later, Peter the Third became emperor.
France - Louis XV was the emperor, the commanders succeeded each other as a result of intrigues and frequent defeats. Le Tellier was appointed first, then Richelieu, de Bourbon-Condé, Erasmus, Victor-Francois, de Rogan.

Invasion of Saxony

Officially, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) began with the Prussian invasion of Saxony. Frederick the Second entered its territory on August 28, 1756. A couple of days later, Russia declared war on Prussia.

The 33,000-strong Austrian army came to the aid of Saxony. But she was broken. Saxony had only eighteen thousand soldiers. They could not resist the two hundred thousandth Prussian army, so they capitulated. Frederick II drove the Saxons into his army, and in vain. Throughout the war, they ran across to the enemy in battalions.

It was important for Frederick the Second to seize these lands in order to transfer hostilities to the side of the enemy. He was also able to use the human and material resources of wealthy Saxony.

Major battles in Europe

During such a long period of war, many battles were fought. Main battles of the Seven Years' War:

Under Kolin - took place on 06/18/1757. The battle lasted six hours. Austria had fifty-four thousand men, and Prussia thirty-five thousand. Frederick II was intoxicated with success, but miscalculated his strength and lost.
Under Leithen, it happened on 12/05/1757. Thirty-two thousand soldiers marched from the Prussian side, while Austria had eighty thousand soldiers. Despite such a numerical superiority, the army under the command of Prince Charles Alexander lost.
Under Rosbach - took place on 11/05/1757. French troops in the amount of forty-three thousand people could not invade Prussia, because they were defeated by twenty-two thousand soldiers of Frederick II.
Zorndorf - happened on 08/25/1758. Russian forces (forty-two thousand soldiers) clashed with Frederick II (thirty-three thousand). The battle was bloody. The Russian troops lost sixteen thousand, and the Prussians eleven thousand. The fight ended in nothing.
Kunersdorf - took place on August 12, 1759. Frederick the Second, with thirty-five thousand troops, opposed forty-one thousand Russian soldiers under the command of Semenovich. The Prussian army was defeated.
Under Torgay, it happened on 11/03/1760. Considered the last major battle of the war. The forces of Prussia (forty-four thousand) and Austria (fifty-three thousand) clashed. The losses of both sides were colossal - sixteen thousand soldiers on each side. The victory was for Frederick II.

Having lost a significant part of his army in battles, the Prussian ruler began to protect it from bloody battles. The war continued for another three years, but everything was limited to maneuvers and marches. The main battles of the Seven Years' War were fought only in the early years.

North American front

Events in North America began as early as 1754, when there was a skirmish at Great Meadows between colonists from England and France. At first, the French were losing ground, but united with the Indians, they were able to win the Battle of Monongahela in 1755. After a series of battles on May 17, 1756, England declares war on Louis XV.

The decisive battle took place in 1759 near Quebec. The French outnumbered the British. The difference was four thousand soldiers. However, the English subjects had the best training and won. Quebec was taken, and a year later Montreal was captured. The result of the Seven Years' War was the displacement of the French from Canada.

Asian front

In 1757, the British and French seized land from each other in Bengal and India. There was also a struggle for dominance in the Indian Ocean between the two fleets. In 1759, French ships left the Indian coast.

The ground forces of Louis XV were also not up to par. In 1760, they were defeated at Vandivash, and a year later the British achieved the capitulation of the enemy from the capital of French India. Such results of the Seven Years' War suited George II quite well.

The British conducted military operations in the Philippines in 1762 against Spain. However, they could not stay there for a long time and in 1765 completed the evacuation from the islands. The result of the Seven Years' War in the Philippines was the impetus for new anti-Spanish uprisings of the local population. However, they cannot be called successful. The Philippines remained under Spanish rule until 1898 when it was taken over by the United States.

Losses

Losses among the warring states:

Austria - four hundred thousand soldiers;
Prussia - about two hundred thousand;
France - up to two hundred thousand;
Russia - about one hundred and forty thousand;
England - twenty thousand.

No one can name the number of killed natives of North America, India and other colonies for which the war was fought. What were the results of the Seven Years' War? Were they worth the sacrifice? Did the war resolve the contradictions between the strongest powers of Europe at that time?

Results of the Seven Years' War

Four peace treaties were signed between the warring countries. Each of them had its own characteristics:

Petersburg - already signed by Peter the Third. Under the agreement, Russia withdrew from the conflict and voluntarily transferred to Prussia its lands, which were occupied by Russian soldiers. Subsequently, these actions of Peter III became one of the reasons for the coup and accession to the throne of Catherine II.
Hamburg - concluded between Sweden and Prussia. Peace was established on the terms of the withdrawal of Swedish troops from the occupied territories. The parties released the prisoners without ransom.
Parisian - it was concluded by four states at once. England and Portugal negotiated with France and Spain. Louis XV refused Canada, Nova Scotia, the islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Ohio Valley. Spain received Havana from England, but conceded Florida. England received Puerto Rico, Menorca was returned to her, but she gave Martinique and Guadeloupe to France. Spain received Louisiana but pledged to withdraw troops from Portugal. France had to leave Hanover, Senegal. The state of Louis XV was allowed to fish near Newfoundland, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Hubertusburg - ended the war. Was signed between Austria, Prussia, Saxony. Maria Theresa renounced Silesia and Graudenz, and Frederick II did not demand compensation for damages. Troops were withdrawn from foreign lands, prisoners of war were released or demobilized. By secret agreement, Prussia was going to vote for the son of Maria Theresa in the election of the head of the Holy Roman Empire.

Many contemporaries were perplexed about the peace treaty between European states. So much blood was shed, and as a result, the pre-war status quo was restored. However, this is not quite true.

In the 18th century, one of the most bloody and large-scale wars took place: the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). It can be argued that the war was of a global character.

Causes of the war

The long-brewing conflict between the world powers turned into a war. Two opposing coalitions were formed:

England, Prussia and Portugal;
Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, Sweden.

Main reasons:

the colonial interests of England and France intersected in India and America;
the strengthening of Prussia and the German army, interests clashed with Austria in relation to Silesia;
The Russian Empire was dissatisfied with Prussia's entry into the world arena;
Sweden's desire to retake Pomerania;
contemptuous antics of the Prussian king Frederick II, a well-known misogynist in relation to the Austrian and Russian empresses and to the Marquise de Pompadour, who actually ruled France. He called the enemy coalition itself "the union of three women."

Course of events

In the spring of 1756 England declares war on France. Almost simultaneously, in August, Prussia invades Saxony. After the complete defeat of the latter, the Russian Empire and a number of other states join the conflict on the side of Austria. Portugal adjoins the Anglo-Prussian bloc.

In 1756, the English fleet defeats the French. Thus the Anglo-Prussian bloc takes the lead.

The Russian troops are commanded by Apraksin, he was given the task of capturing Koenigsberg. Two powerful armies meet at Groß-Jägersdorf in 1757. The army of the Russian Empire won a major victory. At this time, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna fell seriously ill in the capital and Peter III, who strongly sympathized with Frederick II, was her heir. Apraksin, fearing the wrath of the heir, orders to abandon the pursuit and complete defeat of the German army. The Prussian army was defeated and crushed. The myth of his invincibility has been dispelled.

After the defeat, the Prussian army of Frederick II takes revenge on Rosbach and defeats the Austrian-French troops.

The Russian Empress recovers and orders the war to continue. Fermor was placed in command of the Russians. At the end of 1757, the Russians captured Koningsberg, and already in 1758, by order of Elizabeth Petrovna, East Prussia became part of the Russian Empire. In the same year, under the command of Fermor, another major battle took place at Zorindorf. Fermor fled, but thanks to the courage of the Russian soldiers, the German army was again defeated.

At this time, the French lose a major battle to the British near Quebec, and then lose Canada, and later fail in India.

In 1759, P.S. took command of the Russian army. Saltykov. At the very beginning, they suffered a major defeat for Prussia at Kunersdorf. After the capture of the city, the road to Berlin was opened to Russian troops. In 1760, the city was captured, and a year later, in 1762, the Kolberg fortress was captured.

Thus, the defeat of Prussia became obvious. King Frederick was in despair, even tried to abdicate. In this theater of military events, the Allies did not provide assistance to either Russia or Prussia. And at such a moment an important message came from St. Petersburg: the Empress died, Peter III became the new emperor. His first decree was a peace treaty with Prussia. According to the Petersburg Treaty, all lost lands were returned to Prussia, and Russia was withdrawing from the war.

This moment became a turning point in the course of the war. Austria and France lost a powerful ally in the person of Russia, and the Anglo-Prussian bloc gained strength. In 1763, when it became clear that waging war was useless, the Peace of Paris was concluded.

The results of the war

In January 1763, the Peace of Paris was concluded, according to which:

Prussia becomes a powerful power;
Canada is annexed to the possessions of England;
France lost Menroc;
Havana was separated from England in favor of Spain;
Austria lost Silesia;
The Russian Empire remained without territorial changes.

Over 650,000 people were killed during the hostilities. Losses for the 18th century were simply colossal. But it is still unclear what the consequences could have been if Russia had not left the war with the shameful world. It is likely that the division of the world and further world history would be different.

Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763 received a variety of definitions in historical science. So Winston Churchill called it the forerunner of the First World War, for Austria it was the Third Silesian, the Swedes called it Pomeranian, in Canada - the Third Carnatic. It was a global conflict that engulfed the most diverse corners of the planet; in fact, many European states fought in it. How Russia was drawn into this war, and what role it played, read in this article.

Causes

In short, the causes of this war are colonial in nature. Colonial tensions existed between France and England mainly in North America, and because of the possessions of the English king on the continent. Prussia and Austria also competed for disputed territories. So during the first two wars for Silesia, Prussia was able to chop off these lands for itself, which almost doubled its population.

Prussia, led by King Frederick II, after several centuries of fragmentation, began to claim hegemony in Europe. Many people didn't like it. Nevertheless, in the forerunner of the Seven Years' War, we can observe such a historical phenomenon as a coalition coup. This is when a seemingly understandable coalition breaks up and a new one is formed.

King of Prussia Frederick II the Great. Years of government 1740 - 1786

Everything happened like this. For Russia, Austria and England were old allies. And Russia opposed the strengthening of Prussia. Prussia, on the other hand, was blocking with France and England against Austria. King Frederick II asked England to influence Russia, of course, so as not to fight on two fronts. For this purpose, Prussia promised that she would protect the English possessions on the Continent in exchange for money.

The turning point, which no one expected, was the conclusion between England and Prussia of a non-aggression pact. This caused a strong reaction in France, Austria and Russia. Ultimately, these coalitions were formed: Austria, France, Russia and Saxony on the one hand, and Prussia and England on the other.

Thus, Russia was drawn into the Seven Years' War because of its own desire to stop the growth of Prussian influence in Europe. Schematically, this can be represented as follows:

The course of battles

You must know that for the entire XVIII century Russian army never suffered a single defeat! In the Seven Years' War, she was not lucky except with the commanders-in-chief. These were the main events and battles.

Field Marshal Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin

One of the key battles took place between Prussia and Russia in July 1757. The commander of the Russian troops was S.F. Apraksin, who did not particularly hide the fact that the Prussian king is his idol! As a result, despite the fact that the campaign began in May, the troops crossed the Prussian border only in July. The Prussians attacked and overtook the Russian army right on the march! Usually an attack on the march means victory for the attacker. But it was not there. Despite the complete lack of command from Apraksin, the Russian army overturned the Prussians. The battle ended with a decisive victory! Saltykov was tried and removed from command.

Count, general-in-chief Willim Vilimovich Fermor

The next major battle took place in 1958. The place of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army was taken by V.V. Fermor. The battle between the Russian troops and the Prussians took place near the village of Zorndorf. Despite the fact that the commander generally fled from the battlefield, the Russian army utterly defeated the Prussians!

Field Marshal Pyotr Semenovich Saltykov

The last serious battle between the Russian army and the Prussian took place on August 12, 1759. The place of the commander was taken by General P.S. Saltykov. The armies went head to head. Friedrich decided to use the so-called oblique attack, when one of the attacking flanks is strongly strengthened and, as it were, sweeps the opposite flank of the enemy obliquely, crashing into the main forces. The calculation is that the overturned flank will disorientate the rest of the troops and the initiative will be intercepted. But the Russian officers did not care what kind of attack Friedrich uses there. They still broke it!

Map of Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War

Miracle of the Brandenburg House - results

When the fortress of Kolberg then fell, Frederick II was in real shock. He didn't know what to do. Several times the king tried to abdicate the throne, even tried to commit suicide. But towards the end of 1761, the unthinkable happened. Elizaveta Petrovna died, ascended the throne.

The new Russian emperor signed with Friedrich the allied Petersburg treaty, in which he completely renounced all the conquests of Russia in Prussia, including Königsberg. Moreover, Prussia was provided with a Russian corps for the war with Austria, yesterday's ally of Russia!

And so it would be quite possible to count on the fact that Königsberg would become part of Russia already in the 18th century, and not in 1945.

In fairness, it is worth saying how this war ended for the rest of the warring parties, what were its results.

The Peace of Paris was concluded between England and France, according to which France ceded Canada and other lands in North America to England.

Prussia made peace with Austria and Silesia, which was called Hubertusburg. Prussia received the disputed Silesia and the County of Glatz.

Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov

The 1762 campaign was the last in the Seven Years' War. The weapon itself fell out of the hands of the weary fighters. The conclusion of peace was hastened by Russia's withdrawal from the Seven Years' War after the death of Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. Sweden withdrew from the struggle even earlier by signing the Treaty of Hamburg (May 22, 1762), by which it undertook to clear Prussian Pomerania. The Seven Years' War ended with the Paris and Hubertsburg Peace Treaties of 1763, which summed up its political results.

Peace of Paris 1763

The result of the business trip of the French ambassador, the Duke of Nivernay to London and the English Duke of Bedford to Paris, was the conclusion of a preliminary peace at Fontainebleau (November 3, 1762) and then a final peace in Paris (February 10, 1763). The Peace of Paris 1763 ended maritime and colonial struggle between France and England . England, having destroyed the French and Spanish fleets in the Seven Years' War, received all the benefits she could wish for. France, under the Peace of Paris, gave the British an entire power in North America: Canada with all the regions belonging to it, that is, the island of Cap-Breton, the islands of St. Lawrence, the entire Ohio Valley, the entire left bank of the Mississippi except for New Orleans. Of the Antilles, she ceded three disputed islands, receiving back only the island of St. Lucia, and also renounced Grenada and the Grenadile Islands.

Results of the Seven Years' War in North America. Map. The British possessions before 1763 are marked in red, the accession of the British following the Seven Years' War is marked in pink

Of all Senegal, France retained after the Seven Years' War only the island of Gorea, of all its former vast possessions in Hindustan - only five cities.

India in the middle and end of the 18th century. On the large map, the purple line shows the border of the spread of French colonial influence by 1751, lost as a result of the Seven Years' War

According to the Peace of Paris, the French returned to the British Minorca, located off the Spanish coast. Spain did not oppose this concession, and since she also ceded Florida to the British, France gave her the right bank of the Mississippi as a reward (agreement of November 3, 1762).

These were the main results of the Seven Years' War for France and England. The English nation could be satisfied with peace on such terms. And regardless of them, the very end of the war, which increased the public debt of Britain by 80 million pounds, was a great blessing for her.

Treaty of Hubertsburg 1763

Almost at the same time as the Treaty of Paris, the Hubertsburg Peace Treaty was signed. between Prussia, Austria and Saxony (February 15, 1763), who determined the outcome of the Seven Years' War on the continent . It was drafted by Minister Herzberg on behalf of the Prussian king, Frisch and Kollenbach on behalf of Maria Theresa and the Emperor, and Brühl on behalf of the Saxon Elector Augustus III. According to the Treaty of Hubertsburg, Frederick II the Great kept Silesia, but promised to cast his vote for election to the Roman kings (that is, to the heirs to the throne German Empire listen)) the eldest son of the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, Joseph. The Elector of Saxony received back all his possessions.

The Treaty of Hubertsburg restored those state borders that existed in Europe before the Seven Years' War. The Prussian king remained the ruler of Silesia, because of which the struggle actually began. The enemies of Frederick II faced in the Seven Years' War with an enemy who "managed to defend himself better than they did to attack him."

“It is wonderful,” said one of the most active figures of that era, French Cardinal Bernie, “that following the results of the Seven Years’ War, not a single power achieved its goal.” The Prussian king planned to make a great upheaval in Europe, to make the imperial throne an alternating property of Protestants and Catholics, to exchange possessions and take for himself those areas that were more to his taste. He gained great fame by subordinating all European courts to his species, but he left an unstable power as a legacy to his successor. He ruined his people, exhausted his treasury and depopulated his domains. Empress Maria Theresa showed in the Seven Years' War more courage than was expected of her, and made her appreciate the power and dignity of her armies higher ... but did not achieve any of her intended goals. She could neither regain Silesia, lost in the War of the Austrian Succession, nor return Prussia to the position of a secondary German possession. Russia in the Seven Years' War showed Europe the most invincible and worst led army in existence. The Swedes played a subordinate and inglorious role to no avail. The role of France in the Seven Years' War, according to Bernie, was ridiculous and shameful.

General results of the Seven Years' War for the European powers

The results of the Seven Years' War turned out to be doubly disastrous for France - both in terms of what she lost in it and in what her enemies and rivals won. As a result of the Seven Years' War, the French lost their military and political prestige, their fleet and their colonies.

England emerged from this fierce struggle as the sovereign mistress of the seas.

Austria, that exacting ally, to which Louis XV had surrendered, freed herself, as a result of the Seven Years' War, from the political influence of France in all Eastern European affairs. After the Seven Years' War, she began to settle them without any regard for Paris, together with Prussia and Russia. The tripartite agreement of Russia, Austria and Prussia in 1772, concluded soon, on the First Partition of Poland was the result of the joint intervention of these three powers in Polish affairs.

Russia fielded already organized and strong troops in the Seven Years' War, slightly inferior to those that the world saw later near Borodino (1812), Sevastopol (1855) and Plevna (1877).

Prussia, as a result of the Seven Years' War, acquired the name of a great military power and actual supremacy in Germany. The Prussian dynasty of Hohenzollerns "with their raking hands" thereafter continuously increased their possessions. The Seven Years' War, in fact, became the starting point for the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, although it took place only a hundred years later.

But for Germany generally the immediate results of the Seven Years' War were very tragic. The inexpressible disaster of many German lands from military devastation, the mass of debts left to weigh on posterity, the death of the well-being of the working classes - these were the main results of the persistent political efforts of the religious, virtuous and beloved subjects of the Empress.

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