FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

ROSTOV STATE ECONOMIC UNIVERSITY "RINH"

FACULTY OF COMMERCE AND MARKETING

CHAIR OF PHILOSOPHY AND CULTUROLOGY

on the topic: "Electromagnetic picture of the world"

Completed:

student gr. 211 E.V. Popov

Checked:

Rostov-on-Don

Introduction

1. Basic experimental laws of electromagnetism

2. The theory of electromagnetic field D. Maxwell

3. Lorentz electronic theory

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

One of the most important characteristics of a person, which distinguishes him from an animal, is that in his actions he relies on reason, on a system of knowledge and their assessment. The behavior of people, the degree of effectiveness of the tasks they solve, of course, depends on how adequate and deep their understanding of reality is, to what extent they can correctly assess the situation in which they have to act and apply their knowledge.

For a long time in human life, not only those knowledge that had direct practical significance, but also those that related to general ideas about nature, society and man himself, acquired great importance. It is the latter, as it were, that hold together the spiritual world of people into a single whole. On their basis, traditions arose, formed and developed in all spheres of human activity. An important role is played by how a person represents the structure of the world. Human self-consciousness tends to imagine the surrounding world, i.e. see with the mind's eye what is called the Universe, and find your place among the surrounding things, determine your position in the cosmic and natural hierarchy. Since ancient times, people have been concerned about questions about the structure of the universe, about the possibility of its knowledge, its practical development, about the fate of peoples and all mankind, about happiness and justice in human life. Without the desire to comprehend the world in its integrity, the desire to understand nature and social phenomena, mankind would not have created science, art, or literature.

Modern science is aimed at building a single, integral picture of the world, depicting it as an interconnected "web of being". In the public consciousness, different pictures of the world historically develop and gradually change, which an ordinary person perceives as a given, as an objectivity that exists independently of our personal opinions. The picture of the world means, as it were, a visible portrait of the universe, a figurative conceptual copy of the Universe, looking at which, one can understand and see the connections of reality and one's place in it. It implies an understanding of how the world works, what laws it is governed by, what underlies it and how it develops. Therefore, the concept of "picture of the world" occupies a special place in the structure of natural science.

Pictures of the world give a person a certain place in the Universe and help him navigate in being. Each of the pictures of the world gives its own version of what the world really is and what place a person occupies in it. In part, the pictures of the world contradict each other, and in part they are complementary and capable of forming a whole. With the development of science, one picture of the world is replaced by another. This is called the scientific revolution, meaning by it a radical break in the previous ideas about the world. Each picture of the world retains from its predecessors the best, the most important, corresponding to the objective structure of the Universe. The new picture is more difficult than the old one. From a philosophical point of view, the world is reality, taken as a whole, grasped in some of its qualitative unity. However, the world as a whole is not given to us directly, insofar as we take a concrete position; we are partial and limited to a small segment of reality.

1. Basic experimental laws of electromagnetism

Consider the electromagnetic picture of the world since its inception. Physics has made a significant contribution to this picture.

Electromagnetic phenomena have been known to mankind since antiquity. The very concept of "electrical phenomena" dates back to the times of Ancient Greece, when the ancient Greeks tried to explain the phenomenon of repulsion of two pieces of amber rubbed with a cloth from each other, as well as attraction of small objects by them. Subsequently, it was found that there are, as it were, two types of electricity: positive and negative.

As for magnetism, the properties of some bodies to attract other bodies were known in ancient times, they were called magnets. The property of a free magnet was established in the North-South direction already in the 2nd century BC. BC. used in ancient China during travel. The first experimental study of a magnet in Europe was carried out in France in the 13th century. As a result, it was found that the magnet has two poles. In 1600, Gilbert put forward the hypothesis that the Earth is a large magnet: this is the reason for the possibility of determining the direction using a compass.

The 18th century, which was marked by the formation of a mechanical picture of the world, actually marked the beginning of systematic research into electromagnetic phenomena. So it was found that the charges of the same name repel each other, the simplest device appeared - the electroscope. In the middle of the XVIII century. the electrical nature of lightning was established (the studies of B. Franklin, M. Lomonosov, G. Richman, and Franklin's merits should be especially noted: he is the inventor of the lightning rod; it is believed that it was Franklin who proposed the designations "+" and "-" for electric charges).

In 1759, the English naturalist R. Simmer concluded that in the normal state, any body contains an equal number of opposite charges that mutually neutralize each other. When electrified, they are redistributed.

At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, it was experimentally established that the electric charge consists of an integer number of elementary charges e = 1.6 * 10 -19 C. This is the smallest charge that exists in nature. In 1897, J. Thomson also discovered the smallest stable particle, which is the carrier of an elementary negative charge. This is an electron with a mass m e = 9.1 * 10 -31 kg. Thus, the electric charge is discrete, i.e. consisting of separate elementary portions q = ± n*e, where n is an integer. As a result of numerous studies of electrical phenomena undertaken in the 18th - 19th centuries, a number of important laws were obtained by thinkers, such as:

1) the law of conservation of electric charge: in an electrically closed system, the sum of charges is a constant value, i.e. electric charges can arise and disappear, but at the same time, an equal number of elementary charges of opposite signs necessarily appear and disappear;

2) the magnitude of the charge does not depend on its speed;

3) the law of interaction of point charges, or Coulomb's law:

where ε is the relative permittivity of the medium (in vacuum ε = 1). According to this law, the Coulomb forces are significant at distances up to 10-15 m (lower limit). At smaller distances, nuclear forces begin to act (the so-called strong interaction). As for the upper limit, it tends to infinity.

The study of the interaction of charges, carried out in the XIX century. it is also remarkable that together with him the concept of "electromagnetic field" was introduced into science. In the process of formation of this concept, the mechanical model of "ether" was replaced by an electromagnetic model: electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields were treated initially as different "states" of the ether. Subsequently, the need for ether disappeared. The understanding came that the electromagnetic field itself is a certain type of matter and for its propagation no special medium "ether" is required.

The proof of these statements are the works of the outstanding English physicist M. Faraday. The field of fixed charges is called electrostatic. An electric charge, being in space, distorts its properties, i.e. creates a field. The power characteristic of the electrostatic field is its strength

. The electrostatic field is potential. Its energy characteristic is the potential φ.

The nature of magnetism remained unclear until the end of the 19th century, and electrical and magnetic phenomena were considered independently of each other, until in 1820 the Danish physicist H. Oersted discovered the magnetic field near a current-carrying conductor. So the connection between electricity and magnetism was established. The strength characteristic of the magnetic field is the intensity

. Unlike non-closed electric field lines (Fig. 1), the magnetic field lines are closed (Fig. 2), i.e. it is vortex.

During September 1820, the French physicist, chemist and mathematician A.M. Ampère develops a new section of the science of electricity - electrodynamics.

Ohm's laws, Joule-Lenz became one of the most important discoveries in the field of electricity. The law discovered by G. Ohm in 1826, according to which in the circuit section I \u003d U / R and for a closed circuit I \u003d EMF / (R + r), as well as the Joule-Lenz law Q \u003d I * U * t for the amount of heat , released during the passage of current through a fixed conductor during time t, significantly expanded the concepts of electricity and magnetism.

The studies of the English physicist M. Faraday (1791-1867) gave a certain completeness to the study of electromagnetism. Knowing about the discovery of Oersted and sharing the idea of the relationship between the phenomena of electricity and magnetism, Faraday in 1821 set the task of "transforming magnetism into electricity." After 10 years of experimental work, he discovered the law of electromagnetic induction. The essence of the law is that a changing magnetic field leads to the emergence of an EMF of induction EMF i = k * dФ m / dt, where dФ m / dt is the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the surface stretched on the circuit. From 1831 to 1855 Faraday's main work "Experimental Investigations in Electricity" is published in the form of series.

As mentioned above, with the approval in the XVII century. mechanistic picture of the world during the next XVIII century. there was a tendency to explain phenomena and processes from the field of study of other sciences in terms of the operation of mechanical laws. However, already in the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. there are results of experiments and experiments that contradict mechanics. The way out of this situation was not the rejection of the latter, but the addition of new ideas to the mechanistic picture of the world. First of all, this applies to the study of electrical and magnetic phenomena.

Initially, electricity and magnetism were considered as weightless, positively and negatively charged. liquids. In addition, these phenomena were studied separately from each other. However, their study in the XIX century. showed that there is a deep relationship between them, the disclosure of which led to the creation of a unified electromagnetic theory. The fundamental difference between the new concept and mechanics was as follows - if in mechanics changes and the movement of material particles are made with the help of external forces applied to the body, then in electrodynamics changes are made under the influence of field forces.

The decisive role in the approval of the electromagnetic theory in science was played by the research of the Danish scientist X. Oersted(1777-1851), English physicist M. Faraday(1791-1867) and J. Maxwell(1831-1879). X. Oersted placed a magnetic needle over the conductor through which the electric current flows and found that it deviates from its original position. This led the scientist to the idea that an electric current creates a magnetic field. M. Faraday, rotating a closed circuit in a magnetic field, discovered that an electric current arises in it - the discovery of the phenomenon electromagnetic induction, which indicated that a changing magnetic field creates an electric field and, therefore, causes an electric current. Based on the experiments of Oersted, Faraday and other scientists, J. Maxwell created his own electromagnetic theory, i.e. the theory of the existence of a single electromagnetic field - electric and magnetic fields are not isolated objects, but form an interconnected, unified electromagnetic field.

In this way it was shown that in the world there is not only substance in the form of bodies, but also physical fields. After various fields became objects of study for physicists along with matter, the picture of the world became more complex.

The main provisions of the electromagnetic picture of the world:

1. If an alternating electric field arises in space, then it generates an alternating magnetic field, and vice versa. A variable or moving field is created only by moving charges. If there is no movement of electric charges, then there will be no magnetic field. Consequently, static electric and magnetic fields that do not change in space and over time do not create a single electromagnetic field. Only when we are dealing with moving electric and magnetic charges, i.e. with alternating fields, an interaction occurs between them and a single electromagnetic field appears.

2. Force arising under the influence current (electric charge moving through a conductor), depends on the speed of movement of the electric charge and is directed perpendicular to the plane of this movement.

3. The laws describing the change in the state of the electromagnetic field in time and space are based on the equations of J. Maxwell.

The main differences between the electromagnetic picture of the world and the mechanical one:

1. In mechanics, knowing the coordinates of the body, its speed and the equation of motion, it is possible to accurately determine its position and speed at any point in space at any moment in time in the future or past.

In electrodynamics, Maxwell's laws make it possible to determine the state of the electromagnetic field in close proximity to its previous state.

2. In mechanics, when determining the state of motion of a system, they rely on the idea of long-range - force action can be transmitted instantaneously to any distance through empty space (the history of state changes is studied along the trajectories of bodies).

In electromagnetic field theory, this possibility is denied, and therefore it relies on the principle short range, which allows you to follow step by step the change in the electromagnetic field over time.

3. In mechanics, change and movement are always considered taking into account the interaction of the bodies themselves, which are the source of movement, that is, the external force that causes this movement.

In the theory of the electromagnetic field, they abstract from such sources and consider only the change in the field in space over time as a whole. Moreover, the source that creates the field may eventually cease to operate, although the field generated by it continues to exist.

The main consequences of the creation of electrodynamics:

1. The establishment of a deep internal connection and unity between previously isolated electrical and magnetic phenomena, which were previously considered as a special kind of weightless liquids, was an outstanding achievement in physics. The concept of the electromagnetic field, which arose on this basis, put an end to numerous attempts at the mechanical interpretation of electromagnetic phenomena.

2. From the Maxwell equations follows the corollary of the existence electromagnetic waves and their speed of distribution. Really, an oscillating electric charge creates a changing electric field, which is accompanied changing magnetic field. As a result of oscillations of electric charges, a certain energy is radiated into the surrounding space in the form electromagnetic waves, that propagate at a certain speed. Experimental studies have established that the propagation velocity of electromagnetic waves is 300,000 km/s. Since light propagates at the same speed, it was logical to assume that there is a certain commonality between electromagnetic and light phenomena.

On the issue of nature light Before the discovery of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, there were two competing hypotheses: corpuscular and wave. Supporters corpuscular hypotheses, starting with I. Newton, considered light as a stream of light corpuscles, or discrete particles (phenomena refraction, or the refraction of light as it passes from one medium to another, and dispersion, or the decomposition of white light into its constituent colors).

However, the corpuscular hypothesis was unable to explain more complex phenomena, such as interference and diffraction Sveta. Under interference waves understand the superposition of coherent light waves. (experiments of the English doctor T. Jung at the beginning of the 19th century) - in other words, the amplification or weakening of light when light waves are superimposed. D fraction - occurs when light deviates from a rectilinear direction (observed when light passes through narrow gaps or bends around obstacles).

Defenders wave hypotheses considered light as a process of wave propagation. Due to the fact that with the help of this hypothesis not only dispersion and refraction, but also interference and diffraction were explained, the wave hypothesis of light begins in the 19th century. displace the corpuscular hypothesis. The discovery of electromagnetic waves was decisive for the approval of the wave theory - due to the fact that the propagation speed of the latter was equal to the speed of light, scientists came to understand light as a special kind of electromagnetic waves. It differs from ordinary electromagnetic waves in its extremely small wavelength, which is 4.7 10 -5 cm for visible and 10-6 cm for invisible, ultraviolet light. In addition, light waves, like electromagnetic waves, propagate perpendicular to the oscillatory process and, therefore, belong to transverse waves.

Thus, the most important consequence of the creation of an electromagnetic picture of the world for optics was, firstly, the rejection of the hypothesis of the existence of the light ether as a special medium for the propagation of light - this role began to be played by the space itself, in which the propagation of electromagnetic waves occurs. Secondly, light phenomena were combined with electromagnetic processes, due to which optics became part of the theory of electromagnetism.

3. Expansion of the scientific understanding of the forms of matter studied in physics. Within the framework of classical mechanics, created by I. Newton, the opinion prevailed that matter exists in only one physical form - substances. Substance- this is a system of material particles, which were considered either material points (mechanics) or atoms (the doctrine of heat).

With the creation of the electromagnetic picture of the world, along with matter, another physical form of matter appears - field.

The main differences between the field and the substance:

1) Main physical characteristic. Substance - weight, since it is she who appears in the fundamental law of mechanics F = that. Field is the field energy.

In other words, when studying motion in mechanics, first of all, they pay attention to the movement of bodies with mass, and when studying the electromagnetic field, to the propagation of electromagnetic waves in space over time.

2) X transmission mode. In mechanics, this effect is transmitted using strength, moreover, it can be carried out in principle over any distance ( long range principle), while in electrodynamics the energy action of the field is transferred from one point to another ( short range principle).

3) physical nature. Mechanics is based on the concept of discrete the nature of matter, which was considered as a system of material particles or a collection of atoms or molecules. In this way, discreteness can be regarded as the final divisibility of matter into separate, ever-decreasing parts. Even the ancient Greeks realized that such divisibility cannot continue indefinitely, because then matter itself will disappear. Therefore, they put forward the assumption that the last indivisible particles of matter are atoms. Electrodynamics is based on the concept of continuity matter, which is presented as a certain integrity and unity. A clear image of such continuity is any continuous medium that fills a certain space. The properties of such a medium, such as a liquid, change from one point to another continuously, without interruption of gradualness and jumps. Using the example of an electromagnetic field, one can make sure that the force effect of such a field is transmitted from the nearby previous point to the next one, that is, continuously.

For classical physics of the XIX century. it was typical to distinguish between the concepts of "substance" and "field", "discreteness" and "continuity". Such an idea stemmed from the fact that classical physics used a discrete and corpuscular approach in the study of some phenomena, and a continuous and field approach in the study of others. In the XX century. the opposition of matter to the field was replaced by an awareness of the dialectical relationship that exists between them. In modern physics, the interaction of discreteness and continuity, corpuscular and wave properties of matter in the study of the properties and patterns of motion of its smallest particles serves as the basis for an adequate description of the phenomena and processes under study.

At the end of the last and the beginning of the present centuries, the largest discoveries were made in natural science, which radically changed our ideas about the picture of the world. First of all, these are discoveries related to the structure of matter, and discoveries of the relationship between matter and energy. If earlier the last indivisible particles of matter, the original bricks that make up nature, were considered atoms, then at the end of the last century, electrons that make up atoms were discovered. Later, the structure of the nuclei of atoms, consisting of protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (devoid of charge particles), was established.

According to the first model of the atom, built by the English scientist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), the atom was likened to a miniature solar system in which electrons revolve around the nucleus. Such a system was, however, unstable:

the spinning electrons, losing their energy, would eventually fall into the nucleus. But experience shows that atoms are very stable formations and huge forces are required to destroy them. In this regard, the previous model of the structure of the atom was significantly improved by the outstanding Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962), who suggested that electrons do not radiate energy when rotating in so-called stationary orbits. Such energy is emitted or absorbed in the form of a quantum, or a portion of energy, only when an electron moves from one orbit to another.

Views on energy have also changed significantly. If earlier it was assumed that energy was emitted continuously, then carefully designed experiments convinced physicists that it could be emitted by individual quanta. This is evidenced, for example, by the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect, when visible light quanta cause an electric current. This phenomenon is known to be used in photometers, which are used in photography to determine the shutter speed during exposure.

In the 30s of the XX century. Another important discovery was made, which showed that the elementary particles of matter, such as electrons, have not only corpuscular, but also wave properties. In this way, it was experimentally proved that there is no impassable boundary between matter and field: under certain conditions, elementary particles of matter exhibit wave properties, and field particles exhibit properties of corpuscles. This became known as wave-particle dualism and was a notion that defied common sense. Prior to this, physicists adhered to the belief that matter, consisting of various material particles, can only have corpuscular properties, and physical fields - wave properties. The combination of corpuscular and wave properties in one object was completely excluded. But under the pressure of irrefutable experimental results, scientists were forced to admit that microparticles simultaneously possess both the properties of corpuscles and waves.

In 1925-1927. to explain the processes occurring in the world of the smallest particles of matter - the microcosm, a new wave, or quantum, mechanics was created. The last name was established for the new science. Subsequently, various other quantum theories arose: quantum electrodynamics, the theory of elementary particles, and others that explore the laws of motion in the microcosm.

Another fundamental theory of modern physics is the theory of relativity, which radically changed the scientific understanding of space and time. In the special theory of relativity, the principle of relativity established by Galileo in mechanical motion was further applied. According to this principle, in all inertial systems, i.e. reference systems moving uniformly and rectilinearly relative to each other, all mechanical processes occur in the same way, and therefore their laws have a covariant, or the same mathematical, form. Observers in such systems will not notice any difference in the course of mechanical phenomena. Later, the principle of relativity was also used to describe electromagnetic processes. More precisely, the special theory of relativity itself appeared in connection with overcoming the difficulties that arose in the description of physical phenomena.

An important methodological lesson that was learned from the special theory of relativity is that it clearly showed for the first time that all motions occurring in nature are relative. This means that in nature there is no absolute frame of reference and, therefore, no absolute motion, which Newtonian mechanics allowed.

Even more radical changes in the doctrine of space and time occurred in connection with the creation of the general theory of relativity, which is often called the new theory of gravitation, which is fundamentally different from the classical Newtonian theory. This theory for the first time clearly and clearly established the relationship between the properties of moving material bodies and their space-time metrics. Theoretical conclusions from it were experimentally confirmed during the observation of a solar eclipse. According to the predictions of the theory, a beam of light coming from a distant star and passing near the Sun should deviate from its rectilinear path and bend, which was confirmed by observations. We will explore these issues in more detail in the next chapter. Here it is enough to note that the general theory of relativity has shown a deep connection between the motion of material bodies, namely gravitating masses, and the structure of physical space-time.

The scientific and technological revolution that has unfolded in recent decades has introduced a lot of new things into our understanding of the natural-scientific picture of the world. The emergence of a systematic approach made it possible to look at the world around us as a single, holistic formation, consisting of a huge variety of systems interacting with each other.

On the other hand, the emergence of such an interdisciplinary area of research as synergetics, or the doctrine of self-organization, made it possible not only to reveal the internal mechanisms of all evolutionary processes that occur in nature, but also to present the whole world as a world of self-organizing processes. The merit of synergetics lies primarily in the fact that it was the first to show that self-organization processes can occur in the simplest systems of inorganic nature, if there are certain conditions for this (openness of the system and its non-equilibrium, sufficient distance from the equilibrium point, and some others). The more complex the system, the higher the level of self-organization processes in it. So, already at the prebiological level, autopoietic processes arise, i.e. self-renewal processes, which in living systems act as interrelated processes of assimilation and dissimilation. The main achievement of synergetics and the new concept of self-organization that emerged on its basis is that they help to look at nature as a world that is in the process of continuous evolution and development.

What is the relation of the synergetic approach to the system-wide one?

First of all, we emphasize that these two approaches do not exclude, but, on the contrary, presuppose and complement each other. Indeed, when considering a set of any objects as a system, they pay attention to their interconnection, interaction and integrity.

The synergetic approach focuses on the study of the processes of change and development of systems. He studies the processes of emergence and formation of new systems in the process of self-organization. The more complex these processes are in various systems, the higher such systems are on the evolutionary ladder. Thus, the evolution of systems is directly related to the mechanisms of self-organization. The study of specific mechanisms of self-organization and the evolution based on it is the task of specific sciences. Synergetics, on the other hand, reveals and formulates the general principles of self-organization of any systems, and in this respect it is similar to the system method, which considers the general principles of functioning, development and structure of any systems. On the whole, the systems approach is of a more general and broader nature, since, along with dynamic, developing systems, it also considers static systems.

These new worldview approaches to the study of the natural-scientific picture of the world had a significant impact both on the specific nature of knowledge in certain branches of natural science and on understanding the nature of scientific revolutions in natural science. But it is precisely with the revolutionary transformations in natural science that the change in ideas about the picture of the world is connected.

To the greatest extent, changes in the nature of concrete knowledge have affected the sciences that study living nature. The transition from research at the cellular level to the molecular level was marked by major discoveries in biology related to the deciphering of the genetic code, the revision of previous views on the evolution of living organisms, the clarification of old and the emergence of new hypotheses of the origin of life, and much more. Such a transition became possible as a result of the interaction of various natural sciences, the widespread use in biology of the exact methods of physics, chemistry, informatics and computer technology.

In turn, living systems served as a natural laboratory for chemistry, the experience of which scientists sought to embody in their research on the synthesis of complex compounds. The teachings and principles of biology seem to have influenced physics to no lesser extent. Indeed, as we will show in subsequent chapters, the idea of closed systems and their evolution towards disorder and destruction was in clear contradiction with Darwin's evolutionary theory, which proved that in living nature new species of plants and animals arise, their improvement and adaptation to environment. This contradiction was resolved due to the emergence of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, based on new fundamental concepts of open systems and the principle of irreversibility.

The advancement of biological problems to the forefront of natural science, as well as the special specificity of living systems, gave rise to a number of scientists to declare a change in the leader of modern natural science. If earlier physics was considered such an undisputed leader, now biology is increasingly acting as such. The basis of the structure of the surrounding world is now recognized not as a mechanism and a machine, but as a living organism. However, numerous opponents of this view, not without reason, declare that since a living organism consists of the same molecules, atoms, elementary particles and quarks, physics should still remain the leader of natural science.

Apparently, the issue of leadership in natural science depends on a variety of factors, among which the decisive role is played by: the importance of leading science for society, the accuracy, elaboration and generality of its research methods, the possibility of their application in other sciences. Undoubtedly, however, the most impressive for contemporaries are the largest discoveries made in leading science and the prospects for its further development. From this point of view, biology of the second half of the 20th century can be regarded as the leader of modern natural science, because it was within its framework that the most revolutionary discoveries were made.

The difference in ways of considering the organization of the sphere of nature leads to the formation of different concepts of describing nature, which also corresponds to the existence of similar ways of considering the economy. Thus, the corpuscular and conceptual concepts of describing nature are displayed respectively in micro- and macroeconomics through the presence of general algorithms for the study of nature and economics, either as consisting of separate elements, or as representing a single whole. At the same time, the concepts of the existence of order or disorder in nature are also reflected in the sphere of economics, where they distinguish between the concept of self-sufficiency of the economic system that does not need to be regulated by the state, and the concept of the need for state regulation of the economic system that is incapable of automatically establishing equilibrium (order ).

The scientific method is a vivid embodiment of the unity of all forms of knowledge about the world. The fact that knowledge in the natural, technical, social and human sciences as a whole is carried out according to some general principles, rules and methods of activity, testifies, on the one hand, to the interconnection and unity of these sciences, and on the other hand, to a common, single source of their knowledge, which is served by the objective real world around us: nature and society.

The widespread dissemination of ideas and principles of the systemic method contributed to the emergence of a number of new problems of an ideological nature. Moreover, some Western leaders of the systems approach began to consider it as a new scientific philosophy, which, in contrast to the previously dominant philosophy of positivism, which emphasized the priority of analysis and reduction, focuses on synthesis and anti-reductionism. In this regard, the old philosophical problem of the relationship between the part and the whole is of particular relevance.

Many supporters of mechanism and physicalism argue that the parts play a decisive role in this relationship, since it is from them that the whole arises. But at the same time, they ignore the indisputable fact that, within the framework of the whole, the parts not only interact with each other, but also experience the action of the whole. The attempt to understand the whole by reducing it to an analysis of parts fails precisely because it ignores the synthesis that plays a decisive role in the emergence of any system. Any complex substance or chemical compound differs in its properties from the properties of its constituent simple substances or elements. Each atom has properties that are different from the properties of its constituent elementary particles. In short, any system is characterized by special holistic, integral properties that are absent from its components.

The opposite approach, based on the priority of the whole over the part, has not received wide distribution in science because it cannot rationally explain the process of the emergence of the whole. Often, therefore, his supporters resorted to the assumption of irrational forces, such as entelechy, vitality, and other similar factors. In philosophy, such views are defended by supporters of holism (from the Greek holos - the whole), who believe that the whole always precedes the parts and is always more important than the parts. When applied to social systems, such principles justify the suppression of the individual by society, ignoring his desire for freedom and independence.

At first glance, it may seem that the concept of holism about the priority of the whole over the part is consistent with the principles of the system method, which also emphasizes the great importance of the ideas of integrity, integration and unity in the knowledge of the phenomena and processes of nature and society. But on closer examination, it turns out that holism exaggerates the role of the whole in comparison with the part, the importance of synthesis in relation to analysis. Therefore, it is the same one-sided concept as atomism and reductionism.

The systems approach avoids these extremes in the knowledge of the world. He proceeds from the fact that the system as a whole does not arise in some mystical and irrational way, but as a result of a specific, specific interaction of quite specific real parts. It is due to this interaction of parts that new integral properties of the system are formed. But the newly emerged integrity, in turn, begins to influence the parts, subordinating their functioning to the tasks and goals of a single integral system.

We have seen that not every collection or whole forms a system, and in connection with this we introduced the concept of an aggregate. But any system is a whole formed by its interconnected and interacting parts. Thus, the process of cognition of natural and social systems can be successful only when the parts and the whole are studied in them not in opposition, but in interaction with each other, and analysis is accompanied by synthesis. one

Throughout the 19th century attempts continued to explain electromagnetic phenomena within the framework of the mechanical picture of the world. But this turned out to be impossible: electromagnetic phenomena were too different from mechanical processes. The greatest contribution to the formation of the electromagnetic picture of the world was made by the works of M. Faraday and J. Maxwell. After Maxwell created the theory of the electromagnetic field, it became possible to talk about the appearance electromagnetic picture of the world.

Maxwell developed his theory on the basis of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction discovered by Faraday. Conducting experiments with a magnetic needle, trying to explain the nature of electrical and magnetic phenomena, Faraday came to the conclusion that the rotation of the magnetic needle is not due to electric charges that are in the conductor, but to a special state of the environment that arose at the location of the magnetic needle.

This meant that the medium surrounding the conductor plays an active role in the interaction of the current with the magnetic needle. In this regard, he introduced the concept of a field as a set of magnetic lines of force penetrating space and capable of determining and directing (inducing) an electric current. This discovery led Faraday to the idea of the need to replace corpuscular ideas about matter with new continual, continuous ones.

Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field boils down to the fact that a changing magnetic field creates not only in the surrounding bodies, but also in vacuum a vortex electric field, which, in turn, causes the appearance of a magnetic field. So a new reality was introduced into physics - electromagnetic field . Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory marked the beginning of a new stage in physics. In accordance with this theory, the world began to be represented as a single electrodynamic system built from electrically charged particles interacting through an electromagnetic field.

The most important concepts of the new theory are: charge, which can be either positive or negative; field strength - the force that would act on a body carrying a unit charge if it were at the point in question.

When electric charges move relative to each other, an additional magnetic force appears. Therefore, the total force that combines the electric and magnetic forces is called electromagnetic. It is believed that electric forces (field) correspond to charges at rest, magnetic forces (field) correspond to moving charges. The whole variety of these forces and charges is described by a system of equations of classical electrodynamics, known as Maxwell's equations.

The essence of the equations of classical electrodynamics is reduced to Coulomb's law, which is completely equivalent to Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as to statements that magnetic field lines are continuous and have neither beginning nor end; there are no magnetic charges; the electric field is created by an alternating magnetic field; The magnetic field can be generated by both an electric current and an alternating electric field.

Maxwell's equations are written in terms of field theory, which makes it possible to describe stationary and non-stationary electromagnetic phenomena in a uniform way, to relate spatial and temporal changes in electric and magnetic fields. These equations have solutions that describe electromagnetic waves propagating at the speed of light. From them, solutions can be obtained for the totality of all waves that can propagate in any direction in space.

Thus, new physical and philosophical views on matter, space, time and forces were put forward, which largely changed the previous mechanical picture of the world. Of course, it cannot be said that these changes were cardinal, since they took place within the framework of classical science. Therefore, the new electromagnetic picture of the world can be considered intermediate, combining both new ideas and old mechanistic ideas about the world.

Only ideas about matter have changed dramatically: corpuscular ideas have given way to continual (field) ideas. From now on, the totality of indivisible atoms ceased to be the ultimate limit of the divisibility of matter. As such, a single absolutely continuous infinite field with power point centers - electric charges and wave motions in it was taken. According to the electromagnetic picture of the world, matter exists in two forms - matter and field. They are strictly separated, and their transformation into each other is impossible.

The main one is the field, which means that the main property of matter is continuity as opposed to discreteness. The electromagnetic field propagates in the form of transverse electromagnetic waves at the speed of light, constantly capturing new areas of space. The filling of space with an electromagnetic field cannot be described on the basis of Newton's laws, since mechanics does not understand this mechanism. In electromagnetism, a change in one entity (magnetic field) leads to the appearance of another entity (electric field). Both of these entities together form an electromagnetic field. In mechanics, one material phenomenon does not depend on the change of another, and together they do not create a single entity.

The concept of movement has also expanded. It began to be understood not only as a simple mechanical movement, but also as the propagation of oscillations in the field. Accordingly, the laws of Newton's mechanics gave way to the laws of electrodynamics of Maxwell. The new picture of the world required a new solution to the problem of physical interaction. The Newtonian principle of long-range action was replaced by the Faraday principle of short-range action, which stated that any interactions are transmitted by the field from point to point continuously and with a finite speed.

Newton's concept of absolute space and absolute time did not fit the new field concepts of matter, since the fields do not have clearly defined boundaries and overlap each other. In addition, fields are absolutely continuous matter, so there is simply no empty space. Similarly, time must be inextricably linked with the processes taking place in the field. It was clear that space and time cannot be regarded as independent entities independent of matter. But the inertia of thinking and the force of habit were so great that for a long time scientists preferred to believe in the existence of absolute space and absolute time.

Initially, in the understanding of space and time, the electromagnetic picture of the world proceeded from the belief that the absolute empty space is filled with the world ether. With the motionless ether, scientists tried to connect the absolute frame of reference. At the same time, in order to explain many material phenomena, the ether had to be attributed unusual properties, often contradicting each other.

However, the creation of the special theory of relativity forced scientists to abandon the idea of the ether, since this theory proceeded from the relativity of length, time and mass, i.e. from their dependence on the reference system. Therefore, only at the beginning of the 20th century. the absolute concept of space and time gave way to the relational (relative) concept of space and time, according to which space, time and matter exist only together, completely dependent on each other. At the same time, space and time are properties of material bodies.

The electromagnetic picture of the world has made a real revolution in physics. It was based on the ideas of the continuity of matter, the material electric field, the continuity of matter and motion, the connection of space and time both with each other and with moving matter. The new understanding of the essence of matter has put scientists in front of the need to revise and re-evaluate these fundamental qualities of matter.

The laws of electrodynamics, like the laws of classical mechanics, still unequivocally predetermined the events they described, so they tried to exclude randomness from the physical picture of the world. However, in the middle of the XIX century. For the first time, a fundamental physical theory of a new type appeared, which was based on the theory of probability. It was the kinetic theory of gases, or statistical mechanics.

Randomness, probability finally found their place in physics and were reflected in the form of so-called statistical laws. True, so far physicists have not given up hope of finding clear, unambiguous laws, similar to Newton's laws, behind the probabilistic characteristics, and considered the newly created theory an intermediate option, a temporary measure. Nevertheless, progress was evident: the concept of probability entered the electromagnetic picture of the world.

The idea of the place and role of man in the Universe did not change in the electromagnetic picture of the world. His appearance was considered only a whim of nature. These views were further strengthened after the advent of Darwin's theory of evolution. Ideas about the qualitative specifics of life and mind with great difficulty made their way into the scientific worldview.

The electromagnetic picture of the world explained a wide range of physical phenomena that were incomprehensible from the point of view of the previous mechanical picture of the world. However, its further development showed that it has a limited character. The main problem was that the continuum understanding of matter did not agree with the experimental facts confirming the discreteness of its many properties - charge, radiation, action.

The problem of the relationship between field and charge also remained unresolved, it was not possible to explain the stability of atoms and their spectra, the radiation of a completely black body. All this testified to the relative nature of the electromagnetic picture of the world and the need to replace it with a new physical picture of the world. Therefore, it was replaced by a new - quantum-field - picture of the world, which combined the discreteness of the mechanical picture of the world and the continuity of the electromagnetic picture of the world.

Section 1. Mechanical scientific picture of the world……………………..3-5

Section 2. Electromagnetic scientific picture of the world ..……………….6-8

Section 3 Quantum-relativistic scientific picture of the world…………..9-10

Conclusions……………………………………………………………………11-13

Literature……………………………………………………………....14

Section 1 . Mechanical scientific picture of the world.

In the history of science, scientific pictures of the world did not remain unchanged, but replaced each other, thus, we can talk about the evolution of scientific pictures of the world. The evolution of physical pictures of the world seems to be the most obvious: natural-philosophical - until the 16th-17th centuries, mechanistic - until the second half of the 19th century, thermodynamic (within the framework of mechanistic theory) in the 19th century, relativistic and quantum-mechanical in the 20th century.

The mechanical picture of the world was formed under the influence of materialistic ideas about matter and the forms of its existence. The fundamental ideas of this picture of the World are classical atomism, dating back to Democritus, and the so-called mechanism. The very formation of a mechanical picture is rightly associated with the name of Galileo Galilei, who was the first to use the experimental method for the study of nature, together with measurements of the quantities under study and subsequent mathematical processing of the results. This method was fundamentally different from the previously existing natural-philosophical method, in which a priori (

The laws of planetary motion discovered by Johannes Kepler, in turn, testified that there is no fundamental difference between the movements of earthly and celestial bodies (as Aristotle believed), since they all obey certain natural laws.

The core of the mechanical picture of the world is Newtonian mechanics (classical mechanics). The formation of classical mechanics and the mechanical picture of the world based on it took place in 2 directions:

1) generalizing the results obtained earlier and, above all, the laws of free fall of bodies discovered by Galileo, as well as the laws of planetary motion formulated by Kepler;

2) creating methods for the quantitative analysis of mechanical movement in general.

In the first half of the 19th century along with theoretical mechanics, applied (technical) mechanics also stands out, having achieved great success in solving applied problems. All this led to the idea of the omnipotence of mechanics and to the desire to create a theory of heat and electricity also on the basis of mechanical concepts. This idea was most clearly expressed in 1847 by the physicist Hermann Helmholtz in his report “On the Conservation of Force”: “The ultimate task of the physical sciences is to

natural phenomena can be reduced to constant attractive and repulsive forces, the magnitude of which depends on the distance”

There are quite a lot of concepts in any physical theory, but among them there are the main ones, in which the specificity of this theory, its basis, worldview essence is manifested. These concepts include the so-called fundamental concepts, namely:

Matter,

Traffic,

Space,

Interaction.

Each of these concepts cannot exist without the other four.

The most important principles of the mechanical picture of the world are:

The principle of relativity

The principle of distance

Causality principle.

Galileo's principle of relativity. Galileo's principle of relativity states that all inertial reference frames (ISRs) from the point of view of mechanics are completely equal (equivalent). The transition from one ISO to another is carried out on the basis of Galilean transformations

Long range principle. In the mechanical picture of the world, it was assumed that the interaction is transmitted instantly, and the intermediate environment does not participate in the transmission of the interaction. This position was called the principle of long-range action.

Causality principle. As already mentioned, in the mechanical picture of the world, all the variety of natural phenomena to the mechanical form of the movement of matter (mechanistic materialism, mechanism). On the other hand, it is known that there are no causeless phenomena, that it is always possible (in principle) to single out cause and effect. Cause and effect are interconnected and influence each other. The effect of one cause may be the cause of another effect. This idea was developed by the mathematician Laplace, stating the following: “Every occurring phenomenon is connected with the previous one on the basis of the obvious principle that it cannot arise without a producing cause. The opposite opinion is an illusion of the mind.” those. Laplace believed that all connections between phenomena are carried out on the basis of unambiguous laws. This doctrine of the conditionality of one phenomenon by another, about their unambiguous regular connection, entered physics as the so-called Laplacian determinism (determinism is predestination).

Section 2. Electromagnetic picture of the world.

The greatest contribution to the formation of this idea of the world was made by the works of M. Faraday and D. Maxwell. After the creation by the latter on the basis of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction discovered by Faraday, the theory of the electromagnetic field, it became possible to speak of the emergence of an electromagnetic picture of the world.

Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory marked the beginning of a new stage in physics. In accordance with it, the world began to be represented as a single electrodynamic system built from electrically charged particles interacting through an electromagnetic field.

The most important concepts of the new theory are: charge, which can be both positive and negative; field strength - the force that would act on a body carrying a unit charge if it were at the point under consideration.

When electric charges move relative to each other, an additional magnetic force appears. Therefore, the total force that combines electric (charges at rest) and magnetic (moving charges) forces is called electromagnetic. The whole variety of these forces and charges is described by a system of equations of classical electrodynamics. They are known as Maxwell's equations. This is the law of Sh. Coulomb, which is completely equivalent to Newton's law of universal gravitation; magnetic lines of force are continuous and have neither beginning nor end, magnetic charges do not exist; the electric field is created by an alternating magnetic field; The magnetic field can be generated by both an electric current and an alternating electric field.

Thus, new physical and philosophical views on matter, space, time and forces were put forward, which largely changed the previous mechanical picture of the world. But it cannot be said that these changes were cardinal, since they were realized within the framework of classical science. Therefore, the new electromagnetic picture of the world can be considered intermediate, combining both new ideas and old mechanistic ideas about the world.

The electromagnetic picture of the world required a new solution to the problem of physical interaction. The Newtonian principle of long-range action was replaced by the Faraday principle of short-range action, which stated that any interactions are transmitted by the field from point to point, continuously and with a finite speed.

Randomness was still tried to be excluded from the physical picture of the world. But in the middle of the XIX century. For the first time, a fundamental physical theory of a new type appeared, which was based on the theory of probability. It was the kinetic theory of gases, or statistical mechanics. Randomness, probability finally found their place in physics and were reflected in the form of so-called statistical laws. True, so far physicists have not given up hope of finding clear, unambiguous laws, similar to Newton's laws, behind the probabilistic characteristics, and considered the newly created theory an intermediate option, a temporary measure. Nevertheless, progress was evident: the concept of probability entered the electromagnetic picture of the world.

The idea of the place and role of man in the Universe did not change in the electromagnetic picture of the world. His appearance was considered only a whim of nature.

The electromagnetic picture of the world explained a wide range of physical phenomena that were incomprehensible from the point of view of the previous mechanical conception of the world. However, its further development showed that it has a relative character. Therefore, it was replaced by a new - quantum-field - picture of the world, which combined the discreteness of the mechanical picture of the world and the continuity of the electromagnetic picture of the world.

Section 3. Quantum-field picture of the world. The modern quantum-field picture of the world is based on a new physical theory - quantum mechanics, which describes the state and movement of microparticles (elementary particles, atoms, molecules, atomic nuclei) and their systems, as well as the relationship of quantities characterizing particles and systems with physical quantities, directly measurable by experience. The laws of quantum mechanics form the foundation for studying the structure of matter. They allow us to find out the structure of atoms, to establish the nature of the chemical bond, to explain the periodic system of elements, to study the properties of elementary particles.

In accordance with the quantum-field picture of the world, any micro-object, having wave and corpuscular properties, does not have a certain trajectory of motion and cannot have certain coordinates and speed (momentum). In quantum mechanics, in contrast to classical physics, the behavior of each microparticle obeys non-dynamic, but statistical laws.

The general picture of reality in the quantum-field picture of the world is, as it were, two-dimensional: on the one hand, it includes the characteristics of the object under study, and on the other hand, the observation conditions on which the certainty of these characteristics depends. This means that the picture of reality in modern physics is not only a picture of an object, but also a picture of the process of its cognition.

Gone are the ideas of the immutability of matter, of the possibility of reaching the final limit of its divisibility.

The concept of motion is changing radically, which becomes only a special case of fundamental physical interactions, of which four types are known: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak.

The specificity of quantum field ideas about patterns and causality is that they always appear in a probabilistic form, in the form of so-called statistical laws, which contribute to a deeper level of knowledge of natural laws. Thus, it turned out that the world is based on chance, probability.

Also, the new picture of the world for the first time included an observer, on whose presence the results of research depended. Moreover, the so-called anthropic principle was formulated, which states that our world is the way it is only thanks to the existence of man. From now on, the appearance of man is considered a natural result of the evolution of the universe.

Conclusions.

Each of the considered pictures of the world interprets concepts; matter space and time in different ways.

According to mechanical picture of the world - this is a substance consisting of the smallest, further indivisible, absolutely solid moving particles - atoms, i.e. Discrete (discrete - “discontinuous”), or, in other words, corpuscular ideas about matter, were adopted in the MKM. That is why the most important concepts in mechanics were the concepts of a material point and an absolutely rigid body (a material point is a body whose dimensions can be neglected under the conditions of a given problem, an absolutely rigid body is a system of material points, the distance between which always remains unchanged).

Space. Recall that Aristotle denied the existence of empty space, linking space, time and motion. Atomists 18-19 centuries on the contrary, they recognized atoms and empty space in which atoms move. Newton, however, considered two types of space:

· relative, with which people get acquainted by measuring the spatial relationship between bodies;

The absolute, which by its very essence is irrespective of anything external and remains always the same and immovable; those. absolute space is an empty receptacle of bodies, it is not connected with time, and its properties do not depend on the presence or absence of material objects in it. Space in Newtonian mechanics is

Subsequently, A. Einstein, analyzing the concepts of absolute space and absolute time, wrote: “If matter disappeared, then only space and time would remain (a kind of stage on which physical phenomena are played out).” In this case, space and time do not contain any special “marks” from which one could count and answer the questions “Where?” and when?" Therefore, to study material objects in them, it is necessary to introduce a reference system (coordinate system and clock). The frame of reference rigidly connected with absolute space is called inertial. The space in Newtonian mechanics is:

Three-dimensional (the position of any point can be described by three coordinates),

Continuous

endless

Isotropic (properties of space do not depend on direction).

Spatial relations in MKM are described by Euclid's geometry.

Time. Newton considered two types of time, similar to space: relative and absolute. People learn relative time in the process of measurements, and absolute (true, mathematical time) in itself and in its essence, without any relation to anything external, flows evenly and is otherwise called duration. Thus, Newton's time, similarly to space, is an empty receptacle of events that does not depend on anything. Time flows in one direction - from the past to the future.

In turn, in quantum field picture of the world the ideas about the relativity of space and time, their dependence on matter, are finally affirmed. They cease to be independent of each other and, according to the theory of relativity, merge into a single four-dimensional space-time that does not exist outside of material bodies.

AT electromagnetic picture of the world fundamentally changed the concept of matter ..

They are strictly separated, and their transformation into each other is impossible. The main one is the field, which means that the main property of matter is continuity as opposed to discreteness.

Literature.

1) Sadokhin A.P. Concepts of modern natural science: textbook. M.: Omega-L, 2008. -239 p.

2) Lipovko P.O. Concepts of modern natural science. Textbook for high schools. Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2004. - 512 p.

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