The problem of interpersonal relations is relevant for modern psychology. A great contribution to the study of this problem was made by outstanding domestic psychologists: G.M. Andreeva, A.V. Petrovsky, B.G. Ananiev, A.A. Bodalev, S.Ya. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, A.V. Brushlinsky, A.I. Dontsova, I.V. Dubrovina, A.L. Zhuravleva, A.N. Leontiev, Yu.A. Lunev, B.D. Parygin, L.I. Umansky, A.S. Chernyshev.

In psychological science, there are many different definitions of the concept of "interpersonal relationships". V.N. Myasishchev defines them as an internal personal basis of interaction, Ya.L. Kolominsky understands them as a specific type of relationship between a person and a person, in which there is the possibility of a direct (or mediated by technical means) simultaneous or delayed personal relationship, N.N. Obozov notes that interpersonal relationships are always "subject-subject" connections, they are characterized by constant reciprocity and variability.

According to A. V. Petrov, interpersonal relations are “subjectively experienced relationships between people, objectively manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication. This is a system of attitudes, orientations, expectations, stereotypes through which people perceive and evaluate each other. Interpersonal relationships are mediated by the content, goals, values ​​and organization of joint activities and act as the basis for the formation of a socio-psychological climate in a team.

According to G.M. Andreeva, it is necessary to distinguish between two main types of relations: public and interpersonal. Public relations are official, formally fixed, objectified, effective connections. They are leading in the regulation of all types of relations, including interpersonal ones.

The nature of interpersonal relationships differs significantly from the nature public relations: their most important specific feature is the emotional basis. There are three types or levels of emotional manifestations of personality: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all kinds of these emotional manifestations. However, in social psychology it is usually the third component that is characterized - feelings. The “set” of these feelings is unlimited. However, all of them can be reduced to two large groups:

• 1) conjunctive feelings are all sorts of people that bring people together, uniting their feelings. In each case of such an attitude, the other side acts as a desired object, in relation to which a readiness for cooperation, for joint actions is demonstrated;
• 2) disjunctive feelings - feelings that separate people, when the other side appears as unacceptable, perhaps even as a frustrating object, in relation to which there is no desire for cooperation. The intensity of both kinds of feelings can be very different.

The emotional content of interpersonal relationships (sometimes called valency) changes in two opposite directions: from conjunctive (positive, bringing together) to indifferent (neutral) and disjunctive (negative, separating) and vice versa. Variants of manifestations of interpersonal relationships are huge. Conjunctive feelings are manifested in various forms of positive emotions and states, the demonstration of which indicates a readiness for rapprochement and joint activity. Indifferent feelings suggest manifestations of a neutral attitude towards a partner (indifference, indifference, indifference).

In the monograph by N.N. Obozov "Interpersonal Relations" summarized the results of research on this problem by domestic and foreign scientists. According to this scientist, “the motivational structure of interpersonal relationships can be different. So, when a friendly relationship arises, the motive for inclusion in contact is the need for communication when the opportunity presents itself to carry it out with an attractive person. Since friendships are determined by interpersonal attractiveness (sympathy, attraction) - they do not oblige to anything. Friendly relations can arise during short-term contact communication and persist for a long time without turning into friendly relations. The emergence and subsequent development of comradely interpersonal relations are determined by the motives for cooperation, formed under the influence of the content of joint activities. Friendly interpersonal relations are already formed in a group (educational, industrial, sports, etc.) of the type of association and cooperation. The motivational structure of this type of interpersonal relations is determined by the content of joint activity that is personally significant for each participant in the interaction (including the goal, tasks, etc.) ".

A.V. Petrovsky created the theory of activity mediation of interpersonal relations in small groups and collectives. In his opinion, “group activity is characterized by a stratometric (multilayer) structure. On the periphery are values ​​and the behavioral activity that corresponds to them, not directly related and practically not mediated in any way by the goals, objectives and content of group joint activity. Closer to the group "core" are the value and relational-interpersonal layer, to one degree or another (largely depending on the level of socio-psychological development of a particular community) mediated by the goals, objectives and content of group activity. This structural layer, as it were, “warms up” the surface “shell”, sometimes decisively determining the nature of the attraction relationships themselves. And inside, the “nuclear” layer, i.e., values ​​that are directly “tied” to the specifics of group activity, its social significance and special conditions its successful implementation.

The motives of interpersonal choice in a group form the psychological basis of individual preference. Their features can serve as an indicator of their level of development. In diffuse groups - emotional and personal likes and dislikes, orientation to the external aspects of the chosen person. In developed groups, interpersonal choices are conditioned by an orientation mainly on the moral and business qualities of a partner, that is, on his personal characteristics that are formed and manifested in joint activities.

The well-being of a person in a group is the general psychological state, emotional and moral mood that dominates in her as a result of a long stay in it. To determine the well-being of the majority of group members, psychology uses the concept of "psychological climate".

Interpersonal relationships are built along the "vertical" (between the leader and subordinate and vice versa) and "horizontal" (between persons occupying the same status). Emotional manifestations of interpersonal connections are determined by the socio-cultural norms of the groups to which the communicants belong, and by individual differences that vary within these norms. Interpersonal relationships can be formed from positions of dominance - equality - subordination and dependence - independence.

The structure of the group is determined by intra-group relations. Position, status, internal attitude, role describe its socio-psychological structure. In addition to the above, the structure of the group is described in terms of composition (a characteristic that reflects the originality of the individual composition of the group, which can be homogeneous, or homogeneous and heterogeneous, or heterogeneous) and communication channels (a system of interpersonal relationships) that ensure interaction and transmission of information from one group member to another. , which can be: centralized (frontal, radial, hierarchical) and decentralized (chain, circular, full).

In the course of direct contact, the following is manifested: social position, role and norm. Social role - fixing a certain position that a person occupies in the system of social relations. There are social, interpersonal, active, latent, institutional and spontaneous types of roles.

Social position (synonymous with the concept of "status") - the place, position of a person in the system of relations in society, determined by a number of specific features and regulating the style of behavior, as well as the views, ideas, attitudes and dispositions of the individual regarding the conditions of his own life, implemented and defended by him in reference groups.

At the end of the 1930s, M. Sherif and K. Sherif introduced the concept of “social group norm”, with the help of which, along with the categories of “status” and “role”, a group is defined. According to these scientists, a social norm is “an evaluation scale, for example, a scale, a criterion, a ruler that determines the acceptable and objectively allowed freedom of behavior, activity, beliefs and beliefs, or any other property and manifestation of members of a social association” .

In the studies of G.M. Andreeva, A.A. Bodaleva, B.F. Lomova, V.A. Barabanshchikova, E.S. Samoylenko noted the relationship between interpersonal relationships and communication, considered the mechanisms of cognition as the basis for the perception of a person by a person.

According to G.M. Andreeva, both social and interpersonal relations of a person are revealed precisely in communication. Its roots are in the very material life activity of individuals. Communication is “the realization of the entire system of human relations. It includes three interrelated aspects: communicative, interactive and perceptual. The communicative side of communication consists in the exchange of information between communicating individuals. The interactive side is the organization of interaction between the interlocutors. The perceptual side of communication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by partners in communication.

A great contribution to the study of the psychological problem of interpersonal relations in a group, society was made by the domestic scientist A.A. Bodalev. According to this scientist, for psychological science, it is relevant "to consider interpersonal communication - the most complex phenomenon as a systemic education that has a number of significant characteristics, characterized by a multi-level structure" .

The scope of interpersonal relationships is extremely wide. According to A.A. Bodalev, “it covers almost the entire range of a person’s existence, ranging from his relationship to large social groups (nations, work collectives) to intimate, dyadic relationships (marital, parent-child relationships). It can be argued that a person, even being completely alone, continues to rely in his thoughts and actions on the existing ideas about the assessments that are significant to others. It is not without reason that such psychological theories of personality were created and still retain their theoretical and practical value, in which the status of its main components is attributed to interpersonal relationships.

Based on the scientific research of B.G. Ananiev and V.N. Myasishcheva, A.A. Bodalev in the 1960s began to study the cognitive component of communication: to identify differences in the formation of images of perception, imagination, ideas and memory during direct contact of a person with a person and an object. Studies were carried out on the influence of age, gender, profession and objects, and subjects of knowledge (A. A. Bodalev, V. A. Eremeev, O. G. Kukosyan, V. N. Kunitsyna, V. N. Panferov, etc.). The role of perception of different types of expression (facial expressions and pantomimes, characteristics of gestures and gait, features of voice and speech) in the formation of a sensual image of a person, interpretation of his emotional state and his inherent personal qualities was studied (S. S. Dashkova, V. A. Labunskaya, V. . X. Manerov and others); the impression about people of ordinary and extraordinary appearance, with normal behavioral reactions and deviations was studied (V. I. Kabrin, Z. N. Lukyanova, Z. I. Ryabikina).

In his scientific research, A.A. Bodalev relied on the scientific theories and concepts of domestic psychologists: the principle of determinism, the subject-activity concept of S.L. Rubinstein, principle systems approach B.F. Lomov. Alexei Alexandrovich wrote: “A person is formed as a subject of knowledge of other people, accumulating and expanding life experience, mastering knowledge about nature and society. Mandatory refraction of individual experience through a system of scientific knowledge about society and man, as well as ideas and images of art is one of the most important conditions for the formation of man as a subject of knowledge.

The development of the individual as “the subject of knowledge of other people goes through many phases and stages, which correspond to deep changes in the structure of individual consciousness. Thoughts, feelings and behavior of a person in relation to other people indicate general development personality. Therefore, the reflection of one person by another can unfold at different levels. Ultimately, these levels depend on what kind of fund of labor activity, knowledge and communication a person has.

When perceiving a person, the subject unconsciously chooses various mechanisms of interpersonal cognition. These mechanisms include: interpretation of communication experience, identification, attribution, empathy and reflection. Identification: 1) assimilation, identification of oneself with the interlocutor, 2) the process of the subject uniting himself with another person or group on the basis of an established emotional connection.

In social psychology, reflection appears in the form of the subject's awareness of how he is actually perceived and evaluated by other people. In the course of mutual reflection of the participants in communication, reflection is a kind of feedback that contributes to the formation of a strategy for the behavior of the subjects of interaction.

In the process of communication, the interlocutors need to understand each other's feelings, this is facilitated by empathy. This is the comprehension of the emotional state, penetration into the experiences of another person.

In conditions of lack of information, the interlocutors begin to attribute to each other both the causes of behavior, and sometimes the patterns of behavior themselves, General characteristics. There is a whole system of methods of attribution (attribution). Theories of causal attribution are widely represented in Western social psychology (G. Kelly, E. Jones, K. Davis, D. Xnnouz, R. Nisbst, L. Stricklesnd). The research is aimed at studying the attempts of the “ordinary person” to understand the cause and effect of the events of which he is a witness or participant.

Various effects of people's perception of each other have been identified. The most studied are: the halo effect, the effect of novelty and primacy, the effect of stereotyping.

« The halo effect "is manifested in the formation of the first impression of a person. A specific setting affects the interlocutor. "A general favorable impression leads to positive assessments and unknown qualities of the perceived and, conversely, a general unfavorable impression contributes to the predominance of negative assessments."

The effect of novelty and primacy lies in the fact that in relation to a familiar person, the last one is the most significant, that is, new information about him, while in relation to a stranger, the first information is more significant.

In the process of communication, people often use stereotypes. This term was first introduced by W. Lippmann in 1922. A social stereotype is a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object (a group, a person, an event) that develops in conditions of information deficiency as a result of generalization personal experience individual and often preconceived notions accepted in society. Very often it arises in relation to a person's group affiliation, for example, to a certain profession. Here there is a tendency to "make sense" from previous experience, to build conclusions based on similarities with this experience.

concept "attraction" is closely related to interpersonal attraction. Researchers consider se as a process and at the same time the result of the attraction of one person to another; allocate levels in it (sympathy, friendship, love) and associate it with the perceptual side of communication. Attraction can be viewed as a special kind of social attitude towards another person, in which a positive emotional component predominates.

The optimal combination of psychological characteristics of partners that contribute to the optimization of their communication and activities is called interpersonal compatibility. As equivalent words, "harmonization", "consistency", "consolidation" are used. Interpersonal compatibility is based on the principles of similarity and mutual complementarity. Its indicators are satisfaction with the joint interaction and its result. The secondary result is the emergence of mutual sympathy. The opposite phenomenon of compatibility is incompatibility, and the feelings caused by xu are antipathy. Interpersonal compatibility is considered as a state, process and result. It develops in the space-time framework and specific conditions (normal, extreme, etc.) that affect its manifestation.

In the process of communication there is a psychological impact of the individual on ipynny and vice versa. A person in a goy or other situation can show conformity, negativism or adherence to principles, positivism, collectivism. Conformity - a person's susceptibility to real or imagined group pressure, manifested in a change in his behavior and attitudes in accordance with the position of the majority that he initially did not share. Conformity can be external and internal.

Sometimes a person is negative. This is the unmotivated behavior of the subject, manifested in actions that are intentionally opposed to the requirements and expectations of other individuals or social groups. The psychological basis of negativism is the setting of the subject to disagree, deny certain requirements, forms of communication, expectations of members of a particular social group, to protest against this group and reject this or that person as such.

For groups high level development is characteristic collectivism. This is the principle of organizing relationships and joint activities of people, manifested in the conscious subordination of personal interests to public interests, in comradely cooperation, in readiness for interaction and mutual assistance, in mutual understanding, goodwill and tact, interest in each other's problems and needs.

According to A. Zhuravlev, the process of forming interpersonal relationships includes dynamics, a regulatory mechanism (empathy) and the conditions for their development. The dynamics of the development of these relations in the time continuum goes through several stages: acquaintance, friendly, comradely and friendly relations. The process of weakening interpersonal relations in the "reverse" direction has the same dynamics (transition from friendly to comradely, friendly and then there is a termination of relations). The duration of each stage depends on many components of interpersonal relationships. The process of acquaintance is carried out depending on the sociocultural and professional norms of the society to which the interlocutors belong. Friendly relations form readiness or unreadiness for the further development of interpersonal relations. If a positive attitude is formed among partners, then this is a favorable prerequisite for further communication.

The problem of interpersonal relations was studied by many foreign scientists. American psychologist Gordon Allport believed that human behavior is always the result of a goy or some other configuration of personality traits. Each person is unique and can be understood by identifying individual characteristics. G. Allport's theory is a combination of humanistic and individual approaches to the study of human behavior.

According to K. Rogers, interaction with other people gives a person the opportunity to discover and experience his real self. Our identity is shaped through interpersonal relationships that create the best opportunity to "full function", to be in harmony with ourselves, others and the environment.

To measure various aspects of interpersonal relationships, there are numerous methods and tests. Among them are the diagnostics of interpersonal relations by T. Leary, the “Q-sorting” technique, the behavior description test by C. Thomas, the method of interpersonal preferences by J. Moreno for measuring sociometric status in a group, the questionnaire of empathic tendencies by A. Msgrabyan and N. Epstein and others.

Thus, many domestic and foreign psychologists have been studying an important socio-psychological problem - the interpersonal relations of people in a group, team, society, and have made a great contribution to the development of its theory and practical application.

Review questions

1. the concept of scientific research methodology

2. basic requirements for scientific research in social psychology

3. theory and empiricism in socio-psychological research. Research types

4. program of socio-psychological research

5. problems of measurement in social psychology (validity)

a) scales as ways to measure socio-psychological characteristics

b) data reliability and validity

c) types of sample

d) the condition for applying tests in social psychology

6. methods of socio-psychological research (survey, observation, analysis of documents)

7. active methods of socio-psychological influence (social-psychological training, group discussion, methodological games, socio-psychological counseling)

8. criteria for the effectiveness of applied research

In psychological science, all existing approaches to the study of communication come down to three aspects:

communicative side (communication as an exchange of information)

Perceptual side (communication as mutual understanding)

interactive side (communication as interaction)

Communication is the exchange of information. In the course of joint activities, people exchange various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings among themselves. But communication cannot be equated either with the transmission of messages, or even with the exchange of information.

Information in the course of communication is not only transmitted, but also formed, specified, developed, encoded and decoded. There is a process of developing new information common to communicating people and giving birth to their community.

The simplest model of interpersonal communication is a pair of individuals connected to each other and entering into a dialogue. To construct it, answer the following questions.

Who? (transmits a message) - communicator

What? (transmitted) – message (text)

How? (transmitting) – channel

To whom? (message sent) – audience (addressee)

With what effect? - efficiency

The transfer of any information is possible through sign systems. In psychology, they study verbal communication (speech is used as a sign system) and non-verbal communication(non-speech sign systems are used).

Speech- exactly this universal means of communication. Speech- the process of human communication with other people through natural language. Different social conditions, different ways of development give rise to different vocabulary, different structure of the language. Therefore, the effectiveness of communication requires a common language for communicating. Factors such as education, general culture and culture of speech are also important.

External speech expanded, focused on others.

inner speech meant for himself. It is characterized by generalization, conciseness, orientation to the meaning of the message.

Dialogic speech is the most important way of communication as an exchange of information.

Dialogue involves and includes:

the uniqueness and equality of partners,

difference and originality points of view,

orientation of each to the understanding and active interpretation of his point of view by the partner,

expectation of an answer and its anticipation in one's own statement;

Complementary positions of the participants in communication (their correlation is the goal of the dialogue).

The lack of internal contact between interlocutors, the difference in attitude to the subject of speech can create difficulties in understanding the true meaning of speech and requires a more complete and detailed construction of speech.

In the process of communication, the most common are phatic, informational, debatable and confessional types of dialogues.

phatic dialogue- the exchange of speech statements only to maintain a conversation.

Information dialogue- exchange of information of various properties.

Discussion Dialogue when different points of view collide. The discussion dialogue accompanies communication in all spheres of life, since interaction with each of them usually requires the coordination of the individual efforts of the partners, which occurs during the discussion.

Confessional Dialogue- the most trusting communication. Intimate communication based on mutual acceptance of individuals, on sharing or common meanings of values ​​and life.

Verbal speech is supplemented by the use of non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication: kinessics, paralinguistics, proxemics, visual communication. Each of the forms of communication uses its sign system.

Kinessika (optical-kinetic system of signs) includes the perception of motor skills of various parts of the body (hands - gestures, faces - facial expressions, bodies - pantomime) - displays the emotional reactions of a person.

Paralinguistic sign system- vocalization of speech (voice quality, its range, tonality).

Extralinguistics- pauses in speech, coughing, laughter, crying, rate of speech.

Proxemics- norms of spatial (optimal communication distances: intimate, personal, social, public) and temporal organization of communication (optimal communication time is 30 minutes).

visual communication- eye contact, previously associated with intimate communication, now the range of such studies has become much wider: signs represented by eye movement (for example, face-to-face communication or a shout in the back) are included in a wider range of communication.

Communication as mutual understanding. In the process of communication, there must be understanding between the participants in this process. Mutual understanding can have two functions.

1) understanding motives, goals, attitudes of partners in interaction;

2) not only understanding but acceptance, the separation of these goals, attitudes, which allows not only to compose actions, but also to establish a special kind of relationship (intimacy, affection), expressed in feelings of friendship, sympathy, love.

Cognition of another person involves the simultaneous implementation of several processes: an emotional assessment of another, an attempt to understand the motives of his actions, a strategy based on this for changing his behavior, building a strategy for his own behavior. But at least two people are included in these processes, and each of them is an active subject. Comparison of oneself with another is carried out from two sides. Each of the partners likens himself to the other. This means that when building an interaction strategy, everyone has to take into account not only the needs, motives and attitudes of the other, but also how this other understands the needs, motives and attitudes of his interlocutor, i.e. the perception of a person by a person involves identification.

Identification is likening oneself to another. One of the easiest ways to understand another person in a real situation, when an assumption about the internal state of a communication partner is based on an attempt to put oneself in his place. Identification acts as one of the mechanisms of cognition and understanding of another person.

The second such mechanism of knowing the other is empathy (not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but rather the desire to emotionally respond to his problems).

Empathy is an emotional understanding of another (the situation of another person is not thought out, but felt).

The mechanism of reflection is also of particular importance for cognition in communication. In social psychology, reflection is an individual's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner. It is no longer just knowing or understanding the other, but also knowing how he understands you, assessing the situation and its prospects.

In the process of perception and understanding of a person by a person, an important role is played by attitudes that lead to the emergence of socio-psychological effects: halo effect, novelty (or primacy) effect, stereotyping effect.

halo effect. Information about a person is "read" in a certain way. It is superimposed on the idea of ​​him, which was created in advance. The halo effect is clearly manifested in the formation of the first impression about a person: a general favorable impression of him leads to positive assessments of his unknown qualities, and a general unfavorable impression contributes to the predominance of negative assessments. The halo effect is most pronounced when the perceiver has minimal information about the object of perception, or when judgments concern moral qualities.

The effects of primacy and novelty are closely related to the halo effect. They relate to the significance of a certain order of presenting information about a person for compiling information about him.

Primacy effect- upon perception stranger the information about him that was presented earlier prevails.

novelty effect- in situations of perception of a familiar person, new information is the most significant.

More broadly, all these effects can be considered as a manifestation of a special process that accompanies the perception of a person by a person - phenomenon of stereotyping.

Stereotype- this is some stable image of a phenomenon or person, which is used in communication as a means of "reducing" the process of recognition.

Social, professional, ethnic stereotypes in communication have a specific origin and meaning. They arise in conditions of limited past experience, when drawing conclusions on the basis of limited information.

This leads, firstly, to a certain simplification and reduction of the process of cognition, although it does not contribute to the accuracy of constructing the image of the other. Second, stereotyping leads to prejudice when, on the basis of negative experience, any new perception is colored with hostility. Prejudice can seriously harm human relationships.

Especially common are ethnic stereotypes, when, on the basis of limited information about individual representatives of ethnic groups, biased conclusions are drawn about the entire group.

Communication as interaction (interactive side of communication). The interactive side of communication is the organization of interaction between communicating individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. Simultaneous participation of people in an activity means that everyone has to make their own special contribution to it.

In order to live, people are forced to interact (i.e. organize joint activities). In psychology, all interactions are divided into two opposite types: cooperation(collaboration) and competition(conflict).

Cooperation contributes to the organization of joint activities, achievements.

Conflict is a collision of oppositely directed goals, interests, positions, views of the subjects of interaction.

Traditionally, conflict has been viewed as a negative type of interaction. Currently, psychologists' research has established the positive aspects of the conflict. For example, 6 types of conflicts characteristic of pedagogical activity and ways of overcoming them are described. Similar to these intrapersonal conflicts arise in a number of specialists in the professional sphere "man-to-man", who intensively interact, contact with people.

1. conflicts due to the diversity of professional duties teacher. Awareness of the impossibility of doing all their work equally well can lead a conscientious teacher to an intrapersonal conflict, to a loss of self-confidence, and disappointment in the profession. Such a conflict is a consequence of the poor organization of the teacher's work; it can be overcome by choosing the main, but real and feasible tasks (with rational means and methods of solution).

2. conflicts arising from different expectations those people who influence the performance of the professional duties of a teacher. Employees of public education authorities, school leaders, colleagues, students and parents can challenge the methods, forms of education and upbringing, the correctness of grading, etc. Pedagogical position, high professional culture will help the teacher psychologically competently overcome such conflicts.

3. conflicts arising from the low prestige of individual subjects of the school curriculum. Music, work, fine arts, physical education are classified as "secondary" subjects. At the same time, the prestige of any school subject ultimately depends on the personality and quality of the teacher's work.

4. conflicts associated with the excessive dependence of the teacher's behavior on various prescriptions and plans that leave no room for initiative. At the same time, the activity of the teacher is under the attention and control of the public and government bodies.

5. conflicts, which are based on the contradiction between multifaceted responsibilities and the desire for a professional career. Not many teachers hold the post of headmaster and his deputies, having unlimited opportunities for professional growth and personal self-realization.

6. conflicts caused by a mismatch of values promoted by the teacher in the school with the values ​​that students observe outside its walls. It is important for a teacher to be psychologically prepared for the manifestation of selfishness, rudeness, lack of spirituality in society and at school in order to defend his professional position.

The specific content of communication as interaction is the ratio of individual "contributions" to a single process of activity.

Joint-individual activity- when each participant does his part of the common work independently of each other.

Joint-sequential activity- the general task is performed sequentially by each participant.

Collaborative activities- when there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. The psychological "picture" of interaction in all these models is different.

Methods of influence in communication . Communication includes three main ways of influence:

1. Infection is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. (The mechanism of socio-psychological infection is reduced to the effect of multiple mutual reinforcement of influences through infection is panic, as the emotional state of a mass of people).

2. Suggestion - a purposeful unreasoned impact of one person on a group or on another person. (Based on an uncritical perception of a message or information. Unlike infection, which is usually non-verbal in nature (music, emotions, games, dances), suggestion is verbal in nature. Carried out through speech, it has a particularly strong effect on impressionable people who do not have life principles and beliefs, insecure people with undeveloped logical thinking.)

3. Imitation - manifests itself in following an example, a model (reproduction). It is of particular importance in the process of human mental development.

“Only through his relationship to another person does a person exist as a person” ( S.L. Rubinstein).

The concept of communication.

Communication functions.

Types of communication.

Communication styles.

The concept of communication. Communication is the most important of the concepts that describe the world of people. The world into which a person enters from the moment of his birth and in which his whole life passes.

The human world is a field of meanings and meanings. From birth to death, a person is immersed in the symbolic space of relationships and various interactions with other people.

Communication- the universal reality of the Human being, generated and supported by various forms of human relations. In this reality, both various types of social relations and the psychological characteristics of an individual are formed and developed. In its spirit, “communication” is a humanitarian concept.

The key words in understanding the essence of communication are the following: contact, connection, interaction, exchange, join method. The most accurate word for communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon is the word contact, those. contact. Human contact is made through language and speech. Speech is the main means of communication.

Communication - one of the main psychological categories. This is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified strategy for interaction, perception and understanding of a communication partner. Communication as a phenomenon is ambiguous and very heterogeneous: it can be formal, or it can be a model of mutual understanding, it can only be an exchange, or it can be creativity, it can be a manifestation of selfishness, manipulation, or it can serve as an example of mutual respect and high morality.

Man becomes personality as a result of interaction and communication with other people, through their relationship to others, and the being of a person in his relationship to other people is the sphere of ethics. The level of moral development has the most significant impact on all aspects of the communication process, since the personality is not only formed in communication, but also largely determines it.

Communication functions. Communication has always been seen as multifunctional process. Here is a far from complete list. functions communication , which are defined according to various criteria: emotional, informational, socializing, connecting, self-knowledge; establishing commonality, instrumental, awareness, self-determination; cohesion, instrumental, translational, self-expression; contact, informational, incentive, coordination, understanding, emotive, establishing relationships, exerting influence, etc. If we consider communication in certain system of relationships then we can distinguish a set of three groups of functions.

1. Psychological functions condition human development as an individual and person. In conditions of communication, many mental processes proceed differently than in conditions of isolated individual activity. Communication stimulates the development of thought processes (cognitive activity), volitional processes (activity), emotional processes (efficiency). Communication is form of existence and manifestation of human essence.

2. Social Features determine development of society as a social system and group development as part of this system. The integration of society is possible only if there is communication in all its forms, types and forms.

3. Instrument functions define numerous connections between man and the world in the broadest sense of the word; between different social groups. In addition, they correspond to the active nature of man, social groups and societies. Communication performs in the collective activity of people communicative and binding role.

Communication contributes to the satisfaction of the following needs:

- needsinstimulation,

- needs for events,

- recognition needs

- need for achievement and recognition,

- the need for structuring time.

Types of communication.First classification : interpersonal and role-playing. The degree of social assignment of communication is very different. Relationships on which social norms and rules have an unexpressed, indirect influence can be characterized as direct, contact. And the type of communication that creates them is called interpersonal type of communication . It is built on the basis of emotional attractiveness, value similarity of partners and little depends on their social ranks and roles.

Relationships strictly mediated by social demands and expectations - distant, mediated. They are implemented in role communication . Here a person is not free in choosing a strategy of his behavior, perception of a partner and self-perception. He loses a certain spontaneity of his reactions. Images, actions, ideas and even feelings are given to him by his social position. Losing spontaneity, a person in role-playing communication acquires a number of equally important values: a sense of belonging, social security, inclusion in a group and relationships.

We can say that there are cultures that are more inclined towards role-playing communication, and there are cultures that are prone to building interpersonal, emotional relationships between people.

Second classification : ritual, monologic, dialogic. ritual communication - a prologue to building relationships and a way to confirm one's existence as a member of one or another important group for a person. It performs a number of important functions: strengthening the psychological connection with the group, increasing self-esteem, demonstrating and reinforcing attitudes and values. An important feature of ritual relations is their “impersonality”. The presence and worthy performance by members of society of various rituals (greetings, apologies, religious, state, etc.) is an indicator of the stability and social literacy of society. At its core ritual communication- This role-playing, « object-object» communication, due to the fact that the value of a person, individuality is leveled in it, it does not have a specific author, there is no focus on a specific person. Participants are equal in their impersonality and in their right to satisfy those important social needs for which they entered the ritual.

monologue communication implies positional inequality of partners. One is the author of the impact, the person is active, the other is the object of the impact, the person is passive. There are two types of monologue communication: imperative and manipulation.

imperative communication - this is an authoritarian, directive form of influence on a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior and internal attitudes, coercion to certain actions or decisions. Peculiarity the imperative is that the ultimate goal of communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled: "You will do as I say." are used as means of exerting influence. order, instructions, instructions and requirements, punishment, encouragement. This communication can be effective in military, extreme, emergency and difficult conditions. But it is inappropriate and unethical in intimate-personal, marital and parent-child relationships. In the practice of education, it is believed that there are only three points that can be instilled in a child with a hard imperative: do not do what is a threat to your life; do not do what is a threat to the life of another person; do not harm the property and values ​​of the family.

manipulative communication - hidden personality control, such a psychological impact on a person, which is designed to ensure that the manipulator receives tacit unilateral advantages, but in such a way that the partner retains the illusion of independence of the decisions made. Peculiarity manipulation - the partner is not informed about the true goals of communication: they are either simply hidden from him or replaced by others. AT manipulative communication the communication partner is perceived not as a holistic unique personality, but as a carrier of certain properties and qualities “necessary” for the manipulator. The spheres of "allowed manipulation" are business, politics, ideology. In any training there is an element of manipulation. E. Shostrom identified eight types of manipulators that can be easily combined into four pairs:

The dictator is a rag;

Calculator - stuck;

Hooligan is a nice guy;

The judge is a defender.

E. Shostrom, describing manipulators, noted their desire for constant control of their behavior and the behavior of other people, lack of sincerity, desire to impress, cynicism, deformation of the emotional sphere

AT imperative and manipulation a person, considering the other as an object of his influence, in fact communicates with himself, not seeing the true interlocutor ( double effect, according to A. Ukhtomsky).

Dialog - this is an equal subject-subject communication, aimed at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge and self-development of partners in communication. The characteristics of such communication are:

Congruence communication partners, i.e. correspondence between experience (experiences), awareness of this experience and means of communication. A person does not consider it necessary to be hypocritical and cunning.

Non-judgmental perception of the personality of a partner, trust in his intentions.

The problematic, debatable nature of communication, conversation at the level of points of view and positions, and not at the level of axioms and eternal truths. Dialogue is destroyed if the communicators switch to the language of dogmas.

Personalized nature of communication, speaking on behalf of the “I” itself: “I think”, “I think”, - instead of impersonal generalizations: “Everyone knows”, “There is no doubt”.

Communication styles- these are well-established habitual forms of human behavior in relation to others in order to achieve certain goals in a relationship.

The concept, structure and types of communication. Objective activity and communication are the most important forms of human social activity. Content, goals and means of communication. The difference between human communication and animal communication. The structure of communication. Communication, interaction and social perception as components of communication according to G. M. Andreeva - Communicator, message content, communication channel, addressee and result as components of communication according to Lasswell. Types of communication between people. Material, cognitive, conditioning, motivational and activity communication. Business, personal, instrumental and targeted communication. Biological and social communication. Direct and indirect, direct and indirect communication - Verbal, non-verbal and proxemal communication. The concept and varieties of proximal zones of communication. Technique and methods of communication. The choice and use of communication techniques. The concept of feedback, its role in communication. Communication skills and factors that determine the level of their development.

The role of communication in the mental development of a person. Communication and human development. Psychological properties and forms of behavior acquired by a person in the process of communication - The role of various types of communication in the mental development of a person.

Development of communication. The main directions of development of communication. Changing the content of communication, its goals and means. Features of the development of communication between animals and humans. Stages of ontogeny of human communication. social behavior. The concept of social behavior, its types. Bulk Behavior. group behavior. Sexual behavior. Prosocial and Helping Behavior - Competitive Behavior. Behavior of type A and type B. Obedient behavior. Problematic, illegal and deviant behavior. Maternal and attachment behavior. Behavior aimed at achieving success and avoiding failure. Behavior expressed in a person's desire for people and the avoidance of people. Behavior focused on gaining power and subordination to people. Confident and helpless demeanor. The reasons for the increased attention of scientists to the study of social behavior.

The concept, structure and types of communication

Considering the way of life of a person, we single out two sides in it: actions with objects and interactions with people. Actions with objects that are subject to their cultural purpose are called objective activities, interactions with people are referred to as communication.

Communication is characteristic not only of humans, but also of many animals. However, at the human level, it acquires the most perfect forms, becoming a culturally conditioned form of social interaction, conscious and mediated by language and speech. Man, in addition, differs from animals in that he has a special need for communication, and also in that he spends most of his time in communication with people.

Communication is a complex form of social activity. It highlights the following aspects: content, purpose and means.

The content of communication is information that is transmitted through communication from person to person. It may contain information about motivation, emotional or other state. One person, for example, through communication can convey to another information about his needs. Through communication, data can be transmitted from person to person, indicating satisfaction and other emotions: joy, anger, sadness, suffering, etc., focused on setting up the interlocutor in a certain way, causing certain actions on his part. We behave differently towards an angry or suffering person than towards someone who is sympathetic and feels a sense of joy.

The content of communication can be information about the state of the environment, transmitted from one living being to another, for example, signals of danger or the presence of positive, biologically significant factors, such as food. In humans, the content of communication is much broader than in animals. Animals enter into communication with each other only in connection with the satisfaction of their organic needs or instincts. People, communicating, exchange information with each other, representing knowledge about the world, acquired experience, abilities, skills, ideas, ideas, assessments, etc.

The purpose of communication is for the sake of which a person enters into communication with other people. The purpose of communication can be to encourage another person to take certain actions, to warn that, on the contrary, he needs to refrain from any actions, to transfer and receive knowledge about the world, to train and educate, to coordinate actions in joint activities, to establish and clarify personal and business relationships and more. For a person, communication is a means of satisfying many needs, including social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic needs, the needs of intellectual growth, moral development, and many others.

The means of communication is understood as the means by which it is realized. The means of communication can be natural or artificial. The means of communication given to man by nature are called natural. These are, for example, gestures, facial expressions, sounds of voice and body movements embedded in the genetic program of development. Artificial - these are the ways of communication that were invented or invented by people themselves. These, for example, include diverse languages, writing, technical means of recording, storing and transmitting information. The differences between the means of communication between people and the means of communication between animals are no less significant than the differences between the content and goals of human communication and the content and goals of communication of representatives of the fauna.

Social psychologists, studying communication as a process, first of all find out its structure. The structure of communication, according to G. M. Andreeva, is presented as communication, interaction and social perception. Accordingly, in the structure of communication, communicative, interactive and social-perceptual side.

The communicative component of communication is the exchange of information between people or the information that they exchange with each other in the process of communication.

The interactive side of communication includes the interaction of people with each other. The social-perceptual aspect of communication is the perception and knowledge of each other by people communicating with each other.

The structure of communication - communications, according to Lasswell, looks somewhat different and is represented by the following diagram:

• communicator - a person who transmits a message;
• message content - what is transmitted by the communicator;
• communication channel - how or with the help of which a message is transmitted;
• the addressee of the communication is the people or audience to whom the message is sent;
• the result of communication is the effect with which the corresponding message is conveyed.

Communication depending on its content, goals and means can be divided into several types. In terms of content, it can be represented as material, cognitive, conditional (from English. - "condition"), motivational and activity. In material communication, people, being engaged in activity, exchange its products. Cognitive communication is the exchange of ideas, knowledge, ideas, logic of thinking, etc.

In conditional communication, people influence each other, designed to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state, for example, cheer up or, on the contrary, spoil it, excite or calm, have a certain impact on the state and well-being of each other.

Motivational communication has as its content the transfer to each other of certain motives, goals, interests, motives, needs, incentives, attitudes. As an example of such communication, we can name cases when one person wants to ensure that another person has or loses some desire, desire, so that he has a certain attitude to action, some need or motive is actualized.

An illustration of activity communication can be the exchange of actions, skills and abilities between people.

Other types of communication include business and personal, instrumental and target. Business communication is organized between people in connection with the work they perform or the business that interests them. Such communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint activity, serves as a means of improving the results of this activity. Its content can be what people are doing.

Unlike business, personal communication is focused around purely personal issues, those interests that affect the personality of a person and are not directly related to work.

Instrumental can be called communication, which is not an end in itself, pursues some other goal, in addition to obtaining satisfaction from the very act of communication.

Target is communication, which itself serves as a means of satisfying a specific need for communication.

According to the goals, communication is divided into biological and social.

Biological - this is communication necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body. It is associated with the satisfaction of organic needs.

Social communication pursues the goal of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, and personal growth of the individual.

By means of communication can be immediate and indirect, direct or indirect.

Direct communication is carried out with the help of natural organs given to man by nature: arms, legs, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.

Mediated communication is associated with the use of special means and tools for the exchange of information. These are either natural objects (a stick, a thrown stone, a footprint on the ground, etc.), or cultural ones (sign systems, symbol recordings on various media, print, radio, television, etc.).

Direct communication involves personal contact and direct perception of people communicating with each other, for example, direct conversation of people when they see and directly react to each other's actions.

Indirect communication is carried out through intermediaries, which may be other people (for example, negotiations between conflicting parties with the help of an arbitrator).

The most important forms of human communication are verbal, non-verbal and proxemal. Verbal is communication through language and speech.

Non-verbal communication does not involve the use of speech or natural language as a means of communication. Non-verbal communication is communication through facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through sensory or bodily contacts. These are also tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person and carrying certain information. Most of the non-verbal forms and means of human communication are innate and allow him to interact, achieving mutual understanding not only with his own kind, but also with other living beings. Many of the higher animals, including dogs, monkeys and dolphins, are naturally given the opportunity to communicate non-verbally with each other and with humans.

Verbal communication is inherent only to a person and, as a prerequisite, involves knowledge of the language and the use of sounds. In terms of its communicative capabilities, it is much richer than all other types and forms of communication, including non-verbal, although it is not able to completely replace it. And the very development of verbal communication initially relies on non-verbal means of communication.

Proxemal communication is called communication, which is carried out through a special arrangement of people in space relative to each other.

So, for example, E. Hall noticed that the location of communicating people at a certain distance from each other in itself carries information about the relationship of these people, and regardless of what words they pronounce, what non-verbal means of communication they use. Hall singled out the following four distances (zones) * indicating different relationships between people.

• 1. Public area. It is approximately 400-750 cm and indicates that at this distance from each other there are people in the process of communication who do not have any personal or business relations, do not intend to go further towards each other or establish personal relationships. This is the zone within which people are located relative to each other in all cases of their public communication (hence the name "public zone").
• 2. Social zone. It is about 120-140 cm and indicates that people communicating at such a distance from each other are acquaintances, partners or work colleagues and only business (not personal) relationships have developed between them.
• 3. Personal zone. It is approximately equal to 45-120 cm. Within this zone, relative to each other, there are people between whom not only business, but also personal relationships have developed, which, however, do not turn into intimate ones.
• 4. Intimate area. It is 0-45 cm. Only the closest people between whom an intimate relationship has developed or who are ready to establish such relationships with each other are allowed into this zone.

The content and goals of communication are its relatively unchanging components, depending on the needs of a person and not always consciously controlled. The same can be said about the means of communication. Their use can be learned, but to a much lesser extent than the technique and methods of communication. The means of communication is understood as the way in which a person realizes a certain content and goals of communication. It depends on the culture of the person, the level of intellectual development, upbringing and education. When they talk about the development of a person's abilities, abilities and skills of communication, they first of all mean the technique and means of communication.

Communication techniques are ways of pre-tuning a person to communicate with people, his behavior in the process of communication, and techniques are the preferred means of communication, including verbal and non-verbal ones.

Before entering into communication with another person, it is necessary to determine your interests, correlate them with the interests of a communication partner, evaluate him as a person, choose the appropriate communication technique and techniques.

Then, in the process of communication, it is necessary to control its course and results, to be able to correctly start, continue and complete the act of communication, leaving the communication partner with an appropriate favorable or unfavorable impression and ensuring that he or she does not have a desire to continue communication.

At the initial stage of communication, his technique includes such elements as the adoption of a certain facial expression, posture, the choice of initial words and tone of expression, movements and gestures that attract the attention of a partner, the performance of actions aimed at a certain perception of the reported (information transmitted).

Facial expression should correspond to three things: the purpose of the message, the result of communication and the attitude towards the partner. Posture, as well as facial expression, serves as a means of demonstrating a certain relationship either to a partner, or to the content of what is communicated to him (perceived from him). Sometimes the subject of communication consciously controls his posture in order to facilitate or, on the contrary, complicate the act of communication. For example, talking face-to-face at close range with an interlocutor usually facilitates communication and indicates a friendly attitude towards him. If one of the communication partners is talking, looking away, standing half-turned or with his back to the interlocutor, at a considerable distance from him, then communication is usually difficult and indicates an unfriendly attitude of people towards each other.

The choice of initial words and tone, initiating the act of communication, also has a certain impression on the partner. For example, a formal tone means that the communication partner is not in the mood to establish a friendly relationship. The same purpose is served by an underlined appeal to "you" to a well-known person. On the contrary, the appeal to "you" and the transition to a friendly, informal tone are a sign of a benevolent attitude, a willingness to establish informal personal relationships. The presence or absence of a benevolent smile on the face at the moment of communication testifies to the same thing - about the attitude towards a person or to the content of communication.

The first gestures that attract the attention of a partner, as well as facial expressions (facial expressions), are often involuntary, therefore, communicating people, hiding their state or attitude towards a partner, avert their eyes or hide their hands from their gaze. In such situations, difficulties often arise in choosing the first words, there are slips of the tongue, speech errors, and other difficulties, about the nature of which Z. Freud spoke a lot and interestingly.

In the process of communication, techniques and techniques are used based on the use of feedback. It is understood as obtaining information about a communication partner used to correct one's own behavior in the process of communication. Feedback includes conscious control of communicative actions, observation of the partner and assessment of his reaction, subsequent change in accordance with this and his own behavior. Feedback involves the ability to see yourself from the side and correctly judge how the partner perceives himself in communication. Inexperienced interlocutors most often forget about feedback or do not know how to use it.

The feedback mechanism involves the ability to correlate one's reactions with the partner's behavior, with assessments of one's own actions and draw a conclusion about what caused the interlocutor's certain reaction to the words spoken. The feedback also includes the corrections that the communicating person makes to his own behavior, depending on how he perceives and evaluates the actions of his partner. The ability to use feedback in communication is one of the highlights included in the process of communication and the structure of human communication abilities.

Communication skills These are the communication skills and abilities on which its success depends. People different ages, education and culture, different levels of development, having different life and professional experience, differ from each other in their properties. Educated and cultured people have, as a rule, more developed communication skills than uneducated and poorly cultured people. People whose professions involve not only frequent and intensive communication, but also the performance of certain roles in communication (actors, doctors, teachers, politicians, leaders) often have more developed communication skills than representatives of other professions.

The techniques and methods of communication used in practice have age-specific features. So, in children they are different from adults, and preschoolers communicate with adults and peers differently than older students do. The technique and methods of communication of older people, as a rule, differ from the technique and methods of communication of young people. Children are more impulsive and direct in communication, and their technique is dominated by non-verbal means. Feedback is poorly developed in children, and communication itself often has an overly pronounced emotional character. With age, these features gradually disappear and communication becomes more balanced, verbal, rational, economical in its expressive expression. Improves with age and feedback in communication.

Professional affiliation in the practice of communication is manifested at the stage of pre-setting, in the choice of the tone of the statement and in specific reactions to the actions of the communication partner. Actors, for example, have a playful (in the sense of acting) style of communicating with people around them, as they get used to the frequent performance of different roles and often get used to them so much that they continue to play in real human relationships. Teachers and leaders may have an bossy, arrogant, or instructive tone of communication. Doctors, especially psychotherapists, in dealing with people often show increased attention and sympathy for them.

CONCEPT, TYPES, FUNCTIONS AND DIFFICULTIES OF COMMUNICATION

When people talk about communication, they usually mean the process of sending and receiving messages using verbal and non-verbal means, including feedback, resulting in the exchange of information, its perception and cognition by the participants in communication, as well as their influence on each other and interaction to achieve changes in activities. Schematically, communication can be represented as follows:

• transmitter, sender;
• recipient, receiver, addressee;
• link;
• noise, signal;
• code, decoder.

The structure of communication includes:

communicative the information component, which means receiving and transmitting messages and involving feedback, this component is based on psychological contact;

informative an aspect based on the process of perception and understanding by people of each other;

interactive(contact) side associated with the process of influence, behavior.

There are the following kinds communication:

• interpersonal, group and intergroup, mass;
• trust and conflict;
• intimate and criminogenic;
• business and personal;
• direct and indirect;
• therapeutic and non-violent.

Of particular importance in recent years is the approach to considering communication from the standpoint of humanistic psychology. In this regard, the concept of "non-violent communication" is of increasing interest, since it is based on the openness and sincerity of contacts.

Communication is only possible through iconic systems. Distinguish verbal means of communication(oral and written speech) and non-verbal(non-verbal) means of communication.

Two types of language are commonly used in interpersonal communication: oral and writing.

The advantages of a written language become decisive where accuracy and responsibility for every word are needed. To skillfully use the written language, you need to enrich your vocabulary, demanding style.

The oral language, which differs in a number of parameters from the written one, is independent. It has its own rules and even grammar. Its main advantage over the written language lies in economy, i.e. Fewer words are needed to convey a thought orally. Savings are achieved through a different word order, omission of ends and other parts of sentences. The disadvantages of the oral language are speech errors, ambiguity. The advantages of oral language are manifested where it is necessary to educate, influence, inspire, and also in conditions of lack of time to protect one's honor and dignity.

Communicative competence involves:

the first is an impeccable command of the written language, which is ensured by education;

the second is a good command of the oral language (in this, people who speak both figurative and at the same time complex folk turns of speech achieve greater success);

the third is the ability to correctly establish the optimal ratio of oral and written languages ​​separately for each situation.

In the case when communication is carried out using non-verbal means, hand gestures, features of gait, voices, as well as facial expressions (mimicry), eyes (micromimics), posture, movement of the whole body as a whole (pantomime), distance, etc. P. And sometimes facial expressions better than words talks about the relationship to the interlocutor. Grimaces are known to express devotion, benevolence, flattery, contempt, fear, envy, etc.

Non-verbal means of communication are needed, in particular, in order to regulate the course of the communication process, create psychological contact between partners, express emotions, reflect the interpretation of the situation.

Non-verbal means of communication, as a rule, cannot independently convey the direct meaning of words, with the exception of some gestures. They are precisely coordinated among themselves and verbal texts. The totality of these means can be compared with a symphony orchestra, and the word with its soloist. They convey a large amount of information.

The mismatch of individual non-verbal means significantly complicates interpersonal communication. Unlike speech, non-verbal means of communication are not fully understood by both speakers and listeners. No one can fully control all of their non-verbal means.

Non-verbal means of communication are divided into three groups:

visual- kinesics (movement of arms, legs, head, torso), direction of gaze and eye contact, eye expression, facial expression, posture (in particular, localization, change of postures relative to verbal text), skin reactions (redness, perspiration), distance (distance to the interlocutor, the angle of rotation towards him, personal space), auxiliary means of communication, including body features (gender, age) and means of their transformation (clothes, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoos, mustaches, beards, cigarettes, etc. .);

acoustic(audio) associated with speech (intonation, volume, timbre, tone, rhythm, pitch, speech pauses and their localization in the text), not associated with speech (laughter, crying, coughing, sighs, gnashing of teeth, "squishing" nose etc.);

tactile(associated with touch) - physical impact (leading the blind by the hand, contact dance, etc.), takevika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).

As part of communicative aspect of communication psychological interaction of partners is concentrated around the problem contact. This problem should not be reduced only to the skills of communicative behavior and the use of communication tools. The main thing in the success of contacts is the perception of each other by partners.

Psychological contact begins with a concrete-sensory perception of the external appearance of partners through the senses.

At this moment, psychic relations dominate, permeated with emotional reactions to each other as to a psychophysical reality. Reactions of acceptance - rejection are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, look, intonation, which indicate whether we like each other or not. Mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection can be expressed by a slip of the eye, pulling back the hand when shaking, turning away the body, fencing gestures, "sour faces", fussiness, running away, etc. And vice versa, we are willing to address those who smile, look straight and open, turn full face, respond with a cheerful and cheerful intonation, etc.

At the stage of contact, a significant role belongs to the external attractiveness of a person, thanks to which a person acquires a special, higher, communicative potential. Therefore, people, as a rule, are jealous of their appearance and pay a lot of attention to it.

Subjective assessment of partners in appearance occurs on a scale of "like - dislike". If we like a person, then he comes into contact with us more easily, if not, then he has to overcome a negative emotional and aesthetic attitude to his appearance. On this path, he needs to demonstrate other qualities that are equally valuable for the dignity of his personality. These can be both attractive psychological qualities (intelligence, kindness, responsiveness, and many others), as well as business qualities, social status, which are manifested in various forms of non-verbal and verbal behavior. They express all aspects of human attractiveness, which predetermine the charm of the individual.

Charm is something more than physical attractiveness, when a person can be beautiful, but cold. This is not just kindness, which can be obsessive, and not a fanatical dedication to one's work, and not an arrogant manifestation of a person's significant social status. Charm is, rather, a mysterious gift to achieve the psychological disposition of the people around, to be attractive, charming, causing an unconscious positive attitude.

The charm comes from the person. It is in sparkling eyes, in a radiant smile, in soft gestures and affectionate intonation, in humor and at the same time in justified expectations of a partner. A charming person says exactly what we want to hear. This is the one who causes a reciprocal emotional-psychological attitude, which is a prerequisite for feedback.

Reverse communication as a process of mutually directed responses serves to maintain contact. However, its presence does not always indicate the strength and psychological depth of communication. So, in cases of actual communication, feedback is sometimes purely external, demonstrative. The partner agrees with his interlocutor, not delving into what he is being told. He only demonstrates the process of listening, remaining psychologically indifferent to the content and meaning of the conversation. This indicates a lack or decline of interest in the speaker, his problems, psychological disunity. Such contact is not strong.

The disappearance of psychological reciprocity leads to the fact that the speaker begins to lose normal intonation, raise his voice, speed up his speech, show aggressiveness and other violations of communicative behavior.

According to the purpose of the message, information can be divided into informative, regulatory and emotional. If only information about the object is transmitted, then the information has an informative purpose. If communication is designed to encourage the partner to act, then the information acquires a regulatory load. Emotional information is addressed to the feelings and experiences of the recipients.

Awareness impartiality of messages requires more rigid logic, conciseness, lexical accuracy in terms of semantic identity, the greatest unambiguity in understanding the message by partners. The incentive effect of regulatory information is to a greater extent associated with the motivational interest of recipients in a particular message. The emotionality of information is acquired mainly due to the expressive arrangement of the message. In this, expressive movements and intonation of the participants in communication play an important role.

It is known that a message transmitted by a correspondent with a more attractive appearance, professional and age status is perceived with great confidence than a person who is closer to the recipients in terms of socio-psychological identity.

Questions about who my interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of a partner become the main psychological riddles for participants in communication. The cognitive aspect of communication covers not only the knowledge of another person, but also reflexively - self-knowledge. The generalizing effect of these processes is images-representations about oneself and partners. Such images are formed through a group assessment of the personality and a socio-psychological interpretation of the personality according to its external manifestations.

The content structure of these images corresponds to the diversity of human properties. It necessarily contains components of the external appearance. This is not accidental, since a person in the role of a practical psychologist paves the way to the inner world of a partner through behavioral signals about the states and properties of the perceived. The psychological characteristics of a person are strongly associated with the elements of appearance, for example: "intelligent eyes", "strong-willed chin", "kind smile", etc.

The constitutional signs of the external appearance and the peculiarities of its design with clothes and cosmetics play the role of standards and stereotypes of the socio-psychological interpretation of the personality.

Another feature of these images is that mutual knowledge is aimed primarily at understanding those qualities of a partner that are most significant for participants in communication on this moment their interactions. Therefore, in the image-representation of a partner, the dominant quality of his personality is not necessarily distinguished.

The standards and stereotypes of mutual knowledge are formed through communication with the immediate environment of a person in those communities with which he is associated with his life. First of all, it is a family and an ethnic group that use cultural and historical patterns of behavior. Along with the latter, a person assimilates national-ethnic, social-age, emotional-aesthetic, professional and other standards and stereotypes of human cognition by a person.

The practical purpose of mutual representations of partners is that the understanding of the psychological make-up of a person is the initial information for determining the tactics of one's behavior in relation to the participants in the interaction. This means that the standards and stereotypes of mutual knowledge perform the function of regulating people's communication. Positive and negative images of a partner reinforce relationships of the same direction, removing or erecting psychological barriers between them. In the discrepancies between mutual ideas and self-assessments of partners, psychological conflicts of a cognitive nature are hidden, which from time to time develop into conflict relations between interacting people.

Attraction as an aspect of communication associated with emotions, feelings and mood in personal contacts of partners. They are manifested in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, behavior.

Coordination and coordination of the positions of partners occur through the exchange of views, thoughts, feelings. Attraction (French) attraction)- attraction, gravitation; the mechanism of formation of attractiveness, affection, sympathy, love. It is associated with empathy (from the Greek. empatheia- empathy).

Mutual aspiration implies a clash of partners in the process of coordinating positions, as a result of which they come to a relationship of "agreement - disagreement" with each other. In case of agreement, the partners are involved in joint activities. At the same time, there is a distribution of roles and functions between them.

Communication functions are diverse. They can be identified in a comparative analysis of a person's communication with different partners, in different conditions, depending on the means used and the impact on the behavior and psyche of the participants in the communication.

In the system of interrelations of a person with other people, such functions as information-communicative, regulatory-communicative and affective-communicative are distinguished.

Information and communication function of communication is, in fact, the transmission and reception of information as a kind of message. It has two constituent elements: the text (the content of the message) and the attitude of the person (the communicator) towards it. Changes in the share and nature of these components, i.e. text and the attitude of the speaker to it, can significantly affect the nature of the perception of the message, the degree of its understanding and acceptance, and therefore affect the process of interaction between people.

The information and communication function of communication is well represented in the well-known model of G. Lasswell, where the following links are distinguished as structural units: communicator (who transmits the message), message content (what is transmitted), channel (how it is transmitted), recipient (to whom it is transmitted). The effectiveness of information transfer can be expressed by the degree of understanding by a person of the transmitted message, its acceptance (rejection), including the novelty and relevance of information for the recipient.

Regulatory-communicative function communication is aimed at organizing interaction between people, as well as at correcting a person’s activity or state. This function is designed to correlate the motives, needs, intentions, goals, tasks, intended methods of activity of the participants in the interaction, adjust the progress of the implementation of the planned programs, and regulate activities. Communication here can be aimed at achieving coherence, solidarity, establishing a strong-willed unity of actions of people united both in small contact groups and large communities (for example, well-established brigades in production, close-knit military units, etc.).

An indicator of the effectiveness of the implementation of this function of communication is the degree of satisfaction with joint activities and communication, on the one hand, and their results, on the other.

Affective-communicative function communication is a process of making changes in the state of people, which is possible both with a special (purposeful) and involuntary impact.

In the first case, consciousness and emotions change under the influence of infection (the process of transmitting an emotional state by other people), suggestion or persuasion. A person's need to change his state under involuntary influence is manifested in him as a desire to “speak out”, “pour out his soul”, etc. Thanks to communication, a person’s general mood changes, which corresponds to information systems theory. Communication itself can both increase and decrease the degree of psychological stress.

Difficulties communication can be considered from the standpoint of various branches of psychology: general, age and pedagogical, social, labor psychology, legal, medical psychology and individual differences.

During communication, certain “barriers” arise, its participants experience various states, each of them manifests certain mental properties of the personality.

Since communication is the interaction of at least two people, difficulties in its course (meaning subjective) can be generated by one participant or both at once. And their consequence is usually a complete or partial failure to achieve goals, contact, dissatisfaction with the motivating motive, or failure to obtain the desired result in the activity that communication served.

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